1. TCOM 503 Fiber Optic Networks Spring, 2007 Thomas B. Fowler, Sc.D. Senior Principal Engineer Mitretek Systems

2. 2ControlNumber Topics for TCOM 503 Week 1: Overview of fiber optic communications Week 2: Brief discussion of physics behind fiber optics Week 3: Light sources for fiber optic networks Week 4: Fiber optic components fabrication and use Week 5: Fiber optic components (continued); Modulation of light Week 6: Optical fiber fabrication and testing of components Week 7: Noise and detection

3. 3ControlNumber Useful web sites A tutorial on testing optical systems: ftp://ftp.flukenetworks.com/public/cabling/DSP4000Series/D SP4000_CBT_2_1.EXE A demo version of an optical network design program from RSOFT: http://www.rsoftdesign.com/products/evalform.cfm Physics demos relevant to the course: http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/index.pl

4. 4ControlNumber Useful web sites (continued) HP/Agilent material on bit error rate (BER) testing: http://we.home.agilent.com/cgi- bin/bvpub/agilent/reuse/cp_ReferenceRedirector.jsp?CONT ENT_NAME=AGILENT_EDITORIAL&CONTENT_KEY=10000 00386:epsg:apn&STRNID=03&LANGUAGE_CODE=eng&CO UNTRY_CODE=ZZ

5. 5ControlNumber Noise and detection Steps in signal reception and recovery Contributors to signal degradation Measure of performance: bit error rate Ways of dealing with transmission problems

6. 6ControlNumber Basic problem Maximize speed while keeping bit error rate (BER) low –BER is ultimate figure-of-merit for a given link of given speed –All other variables must be juggled to keep BER very low Distance Power Coding Fiber Detector Amplifiers

7. 7ControlNumber Typical system Source: Dutton

8. 8ControlNumber Steps in signal detection and recovery Bandpass filter Automatic gain control PLL Decoder clock Bias control Pre-amplifier Amplifier Detector (PIN or APD) Received bit stream

9. 9ControlNumber Tasks of receiver Decide where bits begin and end –Long strings of 0s or 1s may mean no light transitions for many bits Decide what light amplitude represents a 0 and what represents a 1 –Involves a “decision point” which may be dynamic

10. 10ControlNumber The problem Signal transmitted Signal received

11. 11ControlNumber Steps in signal detection and recovery (continued) Signal split into wavelengths Each wavelength fed into receiver Optical signal converted to electronic form using PIN or APD Electronic signal amplified and filtered through bandpass filter to remove low and high frequency components Further amplification of signal Feedback loop stabilizes signal strength Phase locked loop (PLL) used to recover timing Timing used to determine when to make 0/1 decision Bit stream fed into decoder (higher layer processing)

12. 12ControlNumber Limits to receiver performance Reliable detection of a bit requires theoretical minimum of 21 photons –Real receivers require about 10x this amount –May be still higher if large amounts of noise present Quantum efficiency of PIN diodes and other detectors goes down as speed increases –10 Gbps ~ 0.8 –20 Gbps ~ 0.65 –40 Gbps ~ 0.33

13. 13ControlNumber Contributors to signal degradation Noise Jitter Dispersion Reflections Scattering

14. 14ControlNumber Jitter Difference between correct timing of a pulse and timing detected by receiver Noise and distortion introduce slight timing errors –Vary at random Causes –Nature of detection equipment –Smearing and distortion of pulses due to dispersion, action of filters and other components Source: www.ultranet.com

15. 15ControlNumber Noise Random glitches in signal Less of a problem in optical than in electrical circuits Causes –Stray light –Imperfect components such as filters, switches –Light sources all have some noise –Amplifiers –Receiver circuitry

16. 16ControlNumber Dispersion Smearing of pulses due to primarily to chromatic effects Source: Dutton

17. 17ControlNumber Reflections Light transmitted backward due to imperfect components –Many devices use mirrors or rely on interference –Can reflect light if not perfect –Splices and connectors also are a source –Can occur at any junction between materials of different RI

18. 18ControlNumber Scattering Light sent in random directions Causes –Imperfections in fiber –SBS: diffraction caused by acoustic vibrations in fiber Originates with electric field of light beam –SRS: diffraction caused by molecular vibrations in fiber Originates with electric field of light beam

19. 19ControlNumber Signal (bit stream) recovery: PLL Objective is to output a sine wave of same frequency and phase as input –This allows use of the output to “clock” the input pulses and determine when to read them in order to decide if 1 or 0 was transmitted

20. 20ControlNumber PLL (continued) VCO produces clock frequency close to frequency being received VCO output fed to comparison device which compares phase of input, VCO Output of phase detector proportional to difference between input, VCO (error signal) VCO adjusted to minimize error signal Output taken from VCO

21. 21ControlNumber Decision problem Given a certain observed photocurrent (or proportional voltage) received, which bit (0 or 1) is most likely to have been transmitted? Probability question –Answer depends on average receiver response to transmission of 0 or 1 –Also depends on likelihood that 0 or 1 transmitted (so- called a priori knowledge) Usually 50% in this case, but in multi-symbol environments can vary considerably –With this information a maximum likelihood algorithm can be generated

22. 22ControlNumber Decision problem (continued) To get average response curves, create histogram –Send large number of 1s, record signal levels received –Divide into bins based on current received –Plot number received vs. current –Smooth out –Repeat for large number of 0s

23. 23ControlNumber Determining decision curve Photodetector current (  a) Number in this range.5 1.0 1.5 2.52.0 3.0 3.5 4.0 5.0 4.55.5 5 15 10 25 20

24. 24ControlNumber Decision problem (continued) Area=fraction of time 0 will be decided when 1 is correct Area=fraction of time 1 will be decided when 0 is correct

25. 25ControlNumber Limitations on achievable bit rates

26. 26ControlNumber Math background Normal or Gaussian distribution: Commonly referred to as N( ,  2 ) Cumulative normal distribution, P(X), is integral of this from negative infinity to X

27. 27ControlNumber Math background (continued) Complementary cumulative distribution function, Q(X), given by It immediately follows that P(X) + Q(X) = 1

28. 28ControlNumber Math background (continued) Pdf and cdf for normal distri- bution Q(a)

29. 29ControlNumber Math background (continued) Probability of value falling between a and b

30. 30ControlNumber Math background (continued)

31. 31ControlNumber Decision problem (continued) If –  0 = variance of received photocurrent for 0 transmitted –  1 = variance of received photocurrent for 1 transmitted – I 0 = mean value of received photocurrent for 0 transmitted – I 1 = mean value of received photocurrent for 1 transmitted Then threshold photocurrent (decision point) I th given by I th = (  0 I 1 +  1 I 0 )/(  0 +  1 )

32. 32ControlNumber Decision problem (continued) Can also be shown that bit error rate (BER) given by Q ((  0 I 1 +  1 I 0 )/(  0 +  1 )) where Q is the upper tail of Gaussian distribution –Smaller if argument larger This can be shown to be approximately equal to Q((I min 2 /(4N o B)) 1/2 ) whereI min = minimum signal amplitude B = bandwidth N 0 = noise power

33. 33ControlNumber Decision problem (continued) BER goes up if noise power increases Log of BER

34. 34ControlNumber Bit error rates (BER) Early days (1970s) networks had error rates of 10 -6 to 10 -5 on slow copper links –Protocols designed to handle these high error rates Nowadays layered protocols would choke on such rates –Single bit error could cause retransmission of up to 3000 cells Acceptable rate today is 10 -12 to 10 -14

35. 35ControlNumber State of the art in Optical Fiber MediumSourceTechno- logy StatusSpeedDistanceSpeed- Distance product CopperxDSLIn use2 Mbps2 km4 M Multi- mode LEDFDDIIn use100 Mbps2 km200 M Single mode LED or Laser OC-3In use155 Mbps2 km310 M LaserOOKIn use40 Gbps100-150 km 4-6 T LaserAMIn lab40 Gbps40 km1.6 T LaserCoherentIn lab400 Mbps370 km150 G LaserSolitonsIn lab100 Gbps19000 km1900 T

36. 36ControlNumber Some current system components SystemLaserWavelength 155 Mbps (OC3)Index-guided Fabry-Perot 1300 nm 622 Mbps (OC12)DFB1300 nm or 1550 nm for long spans 2.4 Gbps (OC48)DFB1300 or 1550 nm 10 Gbps (OC192) 40 Gbps (OC768) DFB1550 nm 1 Gbps GBICDFB or VCSEL850 nm, 1300 nm, 1550 nm

37. 37ControlNumber Tradeoffs in designing faster systems Receiver sensitivity –Double speed requires doubling power at receiver (because it is received only half as long for each bit) Higher sensitivity Double power of transmitter Shorten link by 15 km Use multilevel coding

38. 38ControlNumber Tradeoffs in designing faster systems: Signal Bandwidth Signal increases bandwidth of laser source by double the signal bandwidth –Modulating signal at 10 Gbps means increasing effective output bandwidth by 20 Gbps –At 1550 nm, 1.5 nm corresponds to about 125 GHz Relevant formulae –For Gaussian pulse of time duration  0, spectral width  = 1/  0 –Bandwidth consumed by frequency range  f given by

39. 39ControlNumber Tradeoffs in designing faster systems: Signal Bandwidth where  f 0 is center frequency,  0 is center wavelength, n is index of refraction (~1.5) Dispersion problem –Doubling speed doubles dispersion –Doubling speed also halves pulse length, so same amount of dispersion has 2x effect –Net result is that doubling speed multiplies dispersion effects by 4 –2.4 Gbps link 1000 km long can only be 65 km at 10 Gbps –Note that broad spectral range of LEDs precludes their use in long distance applications, as well as in applications where closely spaced wavelengths are needed

40. 40ControlNumber Tradeoffs in designing faster systems: nonlinear effects Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS) and Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS) kick in at high powers –Large electric fields trigger vibrations in lattice which cause it to look like a diffraction grating –Incoming pulses are therefore scattered –Power threshold for SBS can be as low as 10 mW –Effectively imposes limit on maximum power that can be used to overcome noise and attenuation

41. 41ControlNumber System design Electronics cost and complexity go up rapidly as speed increases Theoretical limitations indicate that 10 Gbps may be practical limit for PCM systems –Scattering –Dispersion –40 Gbps systems may appear –Note that 40 Gpbs corresponds to bandwidth of 80 GHz 80 GHz requires about 1 nm, without guard bands –This is wider than ITU grid spacing

42. 42ControlNumber System design (continued) More practical to increase speed in other ways –WDM –Multilevel codes –Solitons Require optical time domain multiplexing

43. 43ControlNumber System parameters dependent on power Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) –Signal power/noise power –Can be improved up to a point by increasing laser power Inter-symbol interference (ISI) –Merging of bits due to dispersion –Partially compensated with more power Extinction ratio –If zero bit represented by power level > 0, then extinction ratio is power level of 1/power level of 0 –Low value can be compensated with more power

44. 44ControlNumber Determining how good a signal is as carrier of information Classic measure is “eye diagram” Made by superimposing large number of signal traces overtop of one another Source: Dutton

45. 45ControlNumber Eye diagram (continued) Vertical opening ~ difference in signal level from 0 to 1 –Noise, other factors will reduce Horizontal opening ~ amount of jitter –Large amount of jitter will reduce horizontal width Thickness of bands at zero crossing also measure of jitter Overall size of opening measure of how easy it is to correctly detect 1s and 0s –If eye is closed, nearly impossible to detect Source: Dutton

46. 46ControlNumber Eye diagram (continued) Source: Dutton

47. 47ControlNumber Eye diagrams (continued) 2.5 Gbps Cypress PSI SONET system 900 Mbps Cypress PSI system Source: Cypress Semiconductor

48. 48ControlNumber Eye diagrams (continued) Source: LeCroy

49. 49ControlNumber Eye diagram of VCSEL at 10 Gbps Source: IBM Micro News, Vol. 6, No. 2