1. Chapter 5 Choice Under Uncertainty

2. Chapter 5Slide 2 Topics to be Discussed Describing Risk Preferences Toward Risk Reducing Risk The Demand for Risky Assets

3. Chapter 5Slide 3 Introduction Choice with certainty is reasonably straightforward. How do we choose when certain variables such as income and prices are uncertain (i.e. making choices with risk)?

4. Chapter 5Slide 4 Describing Risk To measure risk we must know: 1) All of the possible outcomes. 2) The likelihood that each outcome will occur (its probability).

5. Chapter 5Slide 5 Describing Risk Interpreting Probability The likelihood that a given outcome will occur

6. Chapter 5Slide 6 Describing Risk Interpreting Probability Objective Interpretation  Based on the observed frequency of past events

7. Chapter 5Slide 7 Describing Risk Interpreting Probability Subjective  Based on perception or experience with or without an observed frequency Different information or different abilities to process the same information can influence the subjective probability

8. Chapter 5Slide 8 Describing Risk Expected Value The weighted average of the payoffs or values resulting from all possible outcomes.  The probabilities of each outcome are used as weights  Expected value measures the central tendency; the payoff or value expected on average

9. Chapter 5Slide 9 Describing Risk An Example Investment in offshore drilling exploration: Two outcomes are possible  Success -- the stock price increase from $30 to $40/share  Failure -- the stock price falls from $30 to $20/share

10. Chapter 5Slide 10 Describing Risk An Example Objective Probability  100 explorations, 25 successes and 75 failures  Probability (Pr) of success = 1/4 and the probability of failure = 3/4

11. Chapter 5Slide 11 Describing Risk An Example: Expected Value (EV)

12. Chapter 5Slide 12 Describing Risk Given: n possible outcomes having payoffs X 1, X 2,…, X n Probabilities of each outcome is given by Pr 1, Pr 2,…, Pr n

13. Chapter 5Slide 13 Describing Risk Generally, expected value is written as:

14. Chapter 5Slide 14 Describing Risk Variability The extent to which possible outcomes of an uncertain event may differ

15. Chapter 5Slide 15 Describing Risk A Scenario Suppose you are choosing between two part-time sales jobs that have the same expected income ($1,500) The first job is based entirely on commission. The second is a salaried position. Variability

16. Chapter 5Slide 16 Describing Risk A Scenario There are two equally likely outcomes in the first job--$2,000 for a good sales job and $1,000 for a modestly successful one. The second pays $1,510 most of the time (.99 probability), but you will earn $510 if the company goes out of business (.01 probability). Variability

17. Chapter 5Slide 17 Income from Sales Jobs Job 1: Commission.52000.510001500 Job 2: Fixed salary.991510.015101500 Expected ProbabilityIncome ($)ProbabilityIncome ($)Income Outcome 1Outcome 2 Describing Risk

18. Chapter 5Slide 18 Job 1 Expected Income Job 2 Expected Income Income from Sales Jobs Describing Risk

19. Chapter 5Slide 19 While the expected values are the same, the variability is not. Greater variability from expected values signals greater risk. Deviation Difference between expected payoff and actual payoff Describing Risk

20. Chapter 5Slide 20 Deviations from Expected Income ($) Job 1$2,000$500$1,000-$500 Job 21,51010510-900 Outcome 1 Deviation Outcome 2 Deviation Describing Risk

21. Chapter 5Slide 21 Adjusting for negative numbers The standard deviation measures the square root of the average of the squares of the deviations of the payoffs associated with each outcome from their expected value. Variability Describing Risk

22. Chapter 5Slide 22 Describing Risk The standard deviation is written: Variability

23. Chapter 5Slide 23 Calculating Variance ($) Job 1$2,000$250,000$1,000 $250,000 $250,000 $500.00 Job 21,510100510 980,100 9,900 99.50 DeviationDeviation Deviation Standard Outcome 1 SquaredOutcome 2 Squared Squared Deviation Describing Risk

24. Chapter 5Slide 24 Describing Risk The standard deviations of the two jobs are: *Greater Risk

25. Chapter 5Slide 25 Describing Risk The standard deviation can be used when there are many outcomes instead of only two.

26. Chapter 5Slide 26 Describing Risk Job 1: expected income $1,600 and a standard deviation of $500. Job 2: expected income of $1,500 and a standard deviation of $99.50 Which job? Greater value or less risk? Decision Making

27. Chapter 5Slide 27 Preferences Toward Risk Choosing Among Risky Alternatives Assume  Consumption of a single commodity  The consumer knows all probabilities  Payoffs measured in terms of utility  Utility function given

28. Chapter 5Slide 28 Preferences Toward Risk A person is earning $15,000 and receiving 13 units of utility from the job. She is considering a new, but risky job. Example

29. Chapter 5Slide 29 Preferences Toward Risk She has a.50 chance of increasing her income to $30,000 and a.50 chance of decreasing her income to $10,000. She will evaluate the position by calculating the expected value (utility) of the resulting income. Example

30. Chapter 5Slide 30 Preferences Toward Risk The expected utility of the new position is the sum of the utilities associated with all her possible incomes weighted by the probability that each income will occur. Example

31. Chapter 5Slide 31 Preferences Toward Risk The expected utility can be written: E(u) = (1/2)u($10,000) + (1/2)u($30,000) = 0.5(10) + 0.5(18) = 14 E(u) of new job is 14 which is greater than the current utility of 13 and therefore preferred. Example

32. Chapter 5Slide 32 Preferences Toward Risk Different Preferences Toward Risk People can be risk averse, risk neutral, or risk loving.

33. Chapter 5Slide 33 Preferences Toward Risk Different Preferences Toward Risk Risk Averse: A person who prefers a certain given income to a risky income with the same expected value. A person is considered risk averse if they have a diminishing marginal utility of income  The use of insurance demonstrates risk aversive behavior.

34. Chapter 5Slide 34 Preferences Toward Risk A Scenario A person can have a $20,000 job with 100% probability and receive a utility level of 16. The person could have a job with a.5 chance of earning $30,000 and a.5 chance of earning $10,000. Risk Averse

35. Chapter 5Slide 35 Preferences Toward Risk Expected Income = (0.5)($30,000) + (0.5)($10,000) = $20,000 Risk Averse

36. Chapter 5Slide 36 Preferences Toward Risk Expected income from both jobs is the same -- risk averse may choose current job Risk Averse

37. Chapter 5Slide 37 Preferences Toward Risk The expected utility from the new job is found: E(u) = (1/2)u ($10,000) + (1/2)u($30,000) E(u) = (0.5)(10) + (0.5)(18) = 14  E(u) of Job 1 is 16 which is greater than the E(u) of Job 2 which is 14. Risk Averse

38. Chapter 5Slide 38 Preferences Toward Risk This individual would keep their present job since it provides them with more utility than the risky job. They are said to be risk averse. Risk Averse

39. Chapter 5Slide 39 Income ($1,000) Utility The consumer is risk averse because she would prefer a certain income of $20,000 to a gamble with a.5 probability of $10,000 and a.5 probability of $30,000. E 10 1520 13 14 16 18 0 1630 A B C D Risk Averse Preferences Toward Risk

40. Chapter 5Slide 40 Preferences Toward Risk A person is said to be risk neutral if they show no preference between a certain income, and an uncertain one with the same expected value. Risk Neutral

41. Chapter 5Slide 41 Income ($1,000) 1020 Utility 0 30 6 A E C 12 18 The consumer is risk neutral and is indifferent between certain events and uncertain events with the same expected income. Preferences Toward Risk Risk Neutral

42. Chapter 5Slide 42 Preferences Toward Risk A person is said to be risk loving if they show a preference toward an uncertain income over a certain income with the same expected value. Examples: Gambling, some criminal activity Risk Loving

43. Chapter 5Slide 43 Income ($1,000) Utility 0 3 102030 A E C 8 18 The consumer is risk loving because she would prefer the gamble to a certain income. Preferences Toward Risk Risk Loving

44. Chapter 5Slide 44 Preferences Toward Risk The risk premium is the amount of money that a risk-averse person would pay to avoid taking a risk. Risk Premium

45. Chapter 5Slide 45 Preferences Toward Risk A Scenario The person has a.5 probability of earning $30,000 and a.5 probability of earning $10,000 (expected income = $20,000). The expected utility of these two outcomes can be found:  E(u) =.5(18) +.5(10) = 14 Risk Premium

46. Chapter 5Slide 46 Preferences Toward Risk Question How much would the person pay to avoid risk? Risk Premium

47. Chapter 5Slide 47 Income ($1,000) Utility 0 1016 Here, the risk premium is $4,000 because a certain income of $16,000 gives the person the same expected utility as the uncertain income that has an expected value of $20,000. 10 18 3040 20 14 A C E G 20 F Risk Premium Preferences Toward Risk Risk Premium

48. Chapter 5Slide 48 Preferences Toward Risk Variability in potential payoffs increase the risk premium. Example: A job has a.5 probability of paying $40,000 (utility of 20) and a.5 chance of paying 0 (utility of 0). Risk Aversion and Income

49. Chapter 5Slide 49 Preferences Toward Risk Example: The expected income is still $20,000, but the expected utility falls to 10. Expected utility =.5u($) +.5u($40,000) = 0 +.5(20) = 10 Risk Aversion and Income

50. Chapter 5Slide 50 Preferences Toward Risk Example: The certain income of $20,000 has a utility of 16. If the person is required to take the new position, their utility will fall by 6. Risk Aversion and Income

51. Chapter 5Slide 51 Preferences Toward Risk Example: The risk premium is $10,000 (i.e. they would be willing to give up $10,000 of the $20,000 and have the same E(u) as the risky job. Risk Aversion and Income

52. Chapter 5Slide 52 Preferences Toward Risk Therefore, it can be said that the greater the variability, the greater the risk premium. Risk Aversion and Income

53. Chapter 5Slide 53 Preferences Toward Risk Combinations of expected income & standard deviation of income that yield the same utility Indifference Curve

54. Chapter 5Slide 54 Risk Aversion and Indifference Curves Standard Deviation of Income Expected Income Highly Risk Averse:An increase in standard deviation requires a large increase in income to maintain satisfaction. U1U1 U2U2 U3U3

55. Chapter 5Slide 55 Risk Aversion and Indifference Curves Standard Deviation of Income Expected Income Slightly Risk Averse: A large increase in standard deviation requires only a small increase in income to maintain satisfaction. U1U1 U2U2 U3U3

56. Chapter 5Slide 56 Reducing Risk Three ways consumers attempt to reduce risk are: 1) Diversification 2) Insurance 3) Obtaining more information

57. Chapter 5Slide 57 Assets Something that provides a flow of money or services to its owner.  The flow of money or services can be explicit (dividends) or implicit (capital gain). The Demand for Risky Assets

58. Chapter 5Slide 58 Capital Gain An increase in the value of an asset, while a decrease is a capital loss. The Demand for Risky Assets

59. Chapter 5Slide 59 The Demand for Risky Assets Risky Asset Provides an uncertain flow of money or services to its owner. Examples  apartment rent, capital gains, corporate bonds, stock prices Risky & Riskless Assets

60. Chapter 5Slide 60 The Demand for Risky Assets Riskless Asset Provides a flow of money or services that is known with certainty. Examples  short-term government bonds, short- term certificates of deposit Risky & Riskless Assets

61. Chapter 5Slide 61 The Demand for Risky Assets Asset Returns Return on an Asset  The total monetary flow of an asset as a fraction of its price. Real Return of an Asset  The simple (or nominal) return less the rate of inflation.

62. Chapter 5Slide 62 The Demand for Risky Assets Asset Returns

63. Chapter 5Slide 63 The Demand for Risky Assets Expected Return Return that an asset should earn on average Expected vs. Actual Returns

64. Chapter 5Slide 64 The Demand for Risky Assets Actual Return Return that an asset earns Expected vs. Actual Returns

65. Chapter 5Slide 65 Investments--Risk and Return (1926-1999) Common stocks (S&P 500)9.520.2 Long-term corporate bonds2.78.3 U.S. Treasury bills0.63.2 Risk Real Rate of(standard Return (%)deviation,%)

66. Chapter 5Slide 66 The Demand for Risky Assets Higher returns are associated with greater risk. The risk-averse investor must balance risk relative to return Expected vs. Actual Returns

67. Chapter 5Slide 67 Investing in the Stock Market Observations Percent of American families who had directly or indirectly invested in the stock market  1989 = 32%  1995 = 41%

68. Chapter 5Slide 68 Summary Consumers and managers frequently make decisions in which there is uncertainty about the future. Consumers and investors are concerned about the expected value and the variability of uncertain outcomes.

69. Chapter 5Slide 69 Summary Facing uncertain choices, consumers maximize their expected utility, and average of the utility associated with each outcome, with the associated probabilities serving as weights. A person may be risk averse, risk neutral or risk loving.

70. Chapter 5Slide 70 Summary The maximum amount of money that a risk-averse person would pay to avoid risk is the risk premium. Risk can be reduced by diversification, purchasing insurance, and obtaining additional information.

71. End of Chapter 5 Choice Under Uncertainty