1. Cell Respiration 3.7, 8.1

2. Assessment statements 3.7.1 Define cell respiration. 3.7.2 State that, in cell respiration, glucose in the cytoplasm is broken down by glycolysis into pyruvate, with a small yield of ATP. 3.7.3 Explain that, during anaerobic respiration, pyruvate can be converted in the cytoplasm into lactate, or ethanol and carbon dioxide, with no further yield of ATP. 3.7.4 Explain that, during aerobic cell respiration, pyruvate can be broken down in the mitochondrion into carbon dioxide and water with a large yield of ATP.

3. Cell respiration The controlled release of energy from organic compounds in cells to form ATP

4. 1 st step of cell respiration: Glycolysis 1.Glucose enters cell through membrane and floats in cytoplasm 2.An enzyme modifies the glucose slightly, then a second enzyme modifies this molecule even more. 3.Series of reactions cleave the 6-carbon glucose into two 3-carbon molecules called pyruvate 4.Some of the energy released from the breaking of covalent bonds in the glucose is used to form 4 ATP molecules

5. http://library.thinkquest.org/27819/media/glycolysis.gif

6. Anaerobic respiration (Fermentation) Alcoholic –Glycolysis –Pyruvates converted to ethanol –CO 2 released –Ex. yeast

7. Lactic acid –Glycolysis –Pyruvates converted into lactic acid –CO 2 produced –Allows glycolysis to continue in absence of oxygen –Benefit?

8. Aerobic respiration Most efficient Performed by cells with mitochondria and oxygen

9. Steps of aerobic respiration 1.Begins with glycolysis 2.Pyruvates enter mitochondrion 3.Each pyruvate loses a CO 2 molecule and becomes acetyl-CoA 4.Acetyl-CoA enters into series of reactions called the Krebs cycle 5.2CO 2 produced from each pyruvate 6.Series of other reactions through electron transport chain 7.Water and large amt. of ATP produced 8.More efficient b/c glucose is completely oxidized

10. Assessment statements 8.1.1 State that oxidation involves the loss of electrons from an element whereas reduction involves a gain of electrons; and that oxidation frequently involves losing oxygen or gaining hydrogen. 8.1.2 Outline the process of glycolysis, including phosphorylation, lysis, oxidation and ATP formation. 8.1.3 Draw and label a diagram showing the structure of a mitochondrion as seen in electron micrograph

11. 8.1.4 Explain aerobic respiration, including the link reaction, the Krebs cycle, the role of NADH + H +, the electron transport chain and the role of oxygen. 8.1.5 Explain oxidative phosphorylation in terms of chemiosmosis. 8.1.6 Explain the relationship between the structure of the mitochondrion and its function.

12. Oxidation and reduction OxidationReduction Loss of electronsGain of electrons Gain of oxygenLoss of oxygen Loss of hydrogenGain of hydrogen Many C-O bondsMany C-H bonds Results in a compound with lower potential energy Results in a compound with higher potential energy

13. Oxidation and reduction cont. Cellular respiration is a catabolic pathway which contains both oxidation and reduction reactions –Glucose is oxidized b/c electrons are transferred from it to oxygen; protons follow the electrons to produce water –Oxygen atoms that occur in the oxygen molecules on the reactant side of the equation are reduced; large drop in the potential energy on the product side

14. Oxidation and reduction cont. Always occur together Referred to as redox reactions Reduced form always has more potential energy than the oxidized form of the molecule

15. Glycolysis – “sugar splitting” Thought to have been one of the first biochemical pathways to evolve Uses no oxygen No required organelles Occurs in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells A hexose, generally glucose, is split in the process

16. Three stages of glycolysis 1.Two molecules of ATP are used to begin glycolysis. The phosphates from the ATPs phosphorylate glucose to form fructose-1, 6-bisphosphate 6-carbon glucose PP 2 ATP 2 ADP

17. 2.The 6-carbon phosphorylated fructose is split into two 3-carbon sugars called glyceraldehyde-3 (G3P). This process involves lysis. PP P P Fructose-1, 6-bisphosphate Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate

18. Step 3 a.Once the two G3P molecules are formed, they enter an oxidation phase involving ATP formation and production of the reduced coenzyme NAD. b.Each G3P undergoes oxidation to from a reduced molecule of NAD +, which is NADH. c.As NADH is being formed, released energy is used to add an inorganic phosphate to the remaining 3-carbon compound. d.This results in a compound with two phosphate groups. e.Enzymes then remove the phosphate groups so they can be added to ADP to produce ATP. f.The end result is the formation of four molecules of ATP, two molecules of NADH and two molecules of pyruvate (the ionized form of pyruvic acid)

19. P 2P PP G3P pyruvate 2 NAD + 2 NADH 4 ADP 4 ATP 2 2 2

20. Summary of glycolysis 1.2 ATPs are used to start process 2.Total of 4 ATPs are produced (net gain of 2 ATPs) 3.2 molecules of NADH are produced 4.Involves substrate-level phosphorylation, lysis, oxidation and ATP formation 5.Occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell 6.Metabolic pathway controlled by enzymes; when ATP is high, feedback inhibition will block first enzyme slowing or stopping the process 7.2 pyruvate molecules are present at the end of the pathway

21. Mitochondria Place where the rest of cell respiration takes place in the presence of oxygen

22. The link reaction 1.Pyruvate enters the matrix of the mito. via active transport 2.Pyruvate is decarboxylated to form the 2- carbon acetyl group 3.Removed carbon is released as CO 2 4.The acetyl group is then oxidized with the formation of reduced NAD+ 5.The acetyl group combines with coenzyme A (CoA) to form acetyl CoA

24. Krebs cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle) If cellular ATP levels are low, the acetyl CoA enters the Krebs cycle Occurs within the matrix of the mito. Called a cycle b/c it begins and ends with the same substance

25. Step 1 –Acetyl CoA combines with a 4-carbon compound called oxaloacetate to form a 6- carbon compound called citrate Step 2 –Citrate is oxidized to form a 5-carbon compound –Carbon combines with oxygen to form CO 2 –NAD+ forms NADH Step 3 –5-carbon compound is oxidized to form a 4- carbon compound –Carbon combines with oxygen to form CO 2

26. Step 4 –4-carbon compound undergoes various changes resulting in another NADH, FADH 2, and ATP The 4-carbon compound is changed during these steps to re-form the starting compound of the cycle, coxaloacetate The Krebs cycle will run twice for each glucose molecule entering cellular respiration

28. Krebs Cycle outcomes 2 ATP 6 NADH 2 FADH 2 4 CO 2

29. Electron Transport Chain Occurs on the inner mitochondrial membrane and on the membranes of the cristae Embedded in the membranes are molecules that are easily reduced and oxidized These carriers of electrons are close together and pass the electrons from one to another due to an energy gradient Each carrier molecule has a slightly different electronegativity and a different attraction for electrons Most of these carriers are proteins with heme groups and are referred to as cytochromes.

30. ETC cont. In the process, small amts. of energy are released Sources of the electrons are the coenzymes NADH and FADH 2 from the Krebs cycle and link reactions Electrons step down in potential energy as they pass from one carrier to another At the end of the chain, the de-energized electrons combine with available oxygen (final electron acceptor) Two hydrogen ions from the aqueous surrounds combine as well forming water

31. Chemiosmosis and Oxidative Phosphorylation Chemiosmosis involves the movement of protons (hydrogen ions) to provide energy so that phosphorylation can occur Because this type of phosphorylation uses an electron transport chain, it is called oxidative phosphorylation

32. Review of interior structure of mitochondrion Matrix – place where Kreb’s cycle takes place Cristae – large surface area for ETC to function Membranes – barrier allowing for proton accumulation on one side; ATP synthase

34. So, what just happened? 1.Electrons provide energy needed to pump protons from matrix to intermembrane space 2.Difference in concentration of hydrogen ions exists 3.Ions passively move into the matrix through a channel in ATP synthase 4.The enzyme harnesses available energy and phosphorylates ADP

35. Summary of ATP production in cellular respiration Glucose → NADH/FADH 2 → ETC → chemiosmosis → ATP ProcessATP usedATP producedNet ATP gain Glycolysis242 Krebs cycle022 ETC and chem.032 Total23836 Only about 30 ATP is generated in reality Accounts for 30% of energy present in the chemical bonds of glucose Where does the rest go?