1. ECE 598: The Speech Chain Lecture 4: Sound

2. Today Ideal Gas Law + Newton’s Second = Sound Ideal Gas Law + Newton’s Second = Sound Forward-Going and Backward-Going Waves Forward-Going and Backward-Going Waves Pressure, Velocity, and Volume Velocity Pressure, Velocity, and Volume Velocity Boundary Conditions: Boundary Conditions: Open tube: zero pressure Open tube: zero pressure Closed tube: zero velocity Closed tube: zero velocity Resonant Frequencies of a Pipe Resonant Frequencies of a Pipe

3. Speech Units: cgs Distance measured in cm Distance measured in cm 1cm = length of vocal folds; 15-18cm = length vocal tract 1cm = length of vocal folds; 15-18cm = length vocal tract Mass measured in grams (g) Mass measured in grams (g) 1g = mass of one cm 3 of H 2 0 or biological tissue 1g = mass of one cm 3 of H 2 0 or biological tissue 1g = mass of the vocal folds 1g = mass of the vocal folds Time measured in seconds (s) Time measured in seconds (s) Volume measured in liters (1L=1000cm 3 ) Volume measured in liters (1L=1000cm 3 ) 1L/s = air flow rate during speech 1L/s = air flow rate during speech Force measured in dynes (1 d = 1 g cm/s 2 ) Force measured in dynes (1 d = 1 g cm/s 2 ) 1000 dynes = force of gravity on 1g (1cm 3 ) of H 2 0 1000 dynes = force of gravity on 1g (1cm 3 ) of H 2 0 Pressure measured in dynes/cm 2 or cm H 2 0 Pressure measured in dynes/cm 2 or cm H 2 0 1000 d/cm 2 = pressure of 1cm H 2 0 1000 d/cm 2 = pressure of 1cm H 2 0 Lung pressure varies from 1-10 cm H 2 0 Lung pressure varies from 1-10 cm H 2 0

4. Why Does Sound Happen? Consider three blocks of air in a pipe. Consider three blocks of air in a pipe. Boundaries are at x (cm) and x+dx (cm). Boundaries are at x (cm) and x+dx (cm). Pipe cross-sectional area = A (cm 2 ) Pipe cross-sectional area = A (cm 2 ) Volume of each block of air: V = A dx (cm 3 ) Volume of each block of air: V = A dx (cm 3 ) Mass of each block of air = m (grams) Mass of each block of air = m (grams) Density of each block of air:  = m/(Adx) (g/cm 3 ) Density of each block of air:  = m/(Adx) (g/cm 3 ) A x+dx x

5. Step 1: Middle Block Squished Velocity of air is v or v+dv (cm/s) Velocity of air is v or v+dv (cm/s) In the example above, dv is a negative number!!! In the example above, dv is a negative number!!! In dt seconds, Volume of middle block changes by In dt seconds, Volume of middle block changes by dV = A ( (v+dv)  dv ) dt = A dv dt cm 3 = (cm 2 ) (cm/s) s Density of middle block changes by Density of middle block changes by d  = m/(V+dV)  m/V ≈  dV/V =  dt dv/dx Rate of Change of the density of the middle block Rate of Change of the density of the middle block d  /dt =   dv/dx (g/cm 3 )/s = (g/cm 3 ) (m/s) / m A v+dv v

6. Step 2: The Pressure Rises Ideal Gas Law: p =  RT (pressure proportional to density, temperature, and a constant R) Ideal Gas Law: p =  RT (pressure proportional to density, temperature, and a constant R) Adiabatic Ideal Gas Law: dp/dt = c 2 d  /dt Adiabatic Ideal Gas Law: dp/dt = c 2 d  /dt When gas is compressed quickly, “T” and “  ” both increase When gas is compressed quickly, “T” and “  ” both increase This is called “adiabatic expansion” --- it means that c 2 >R This is called “adiabatic expansion” --- it means that c 2 >R “c” is the speed of sound!! “c” is the speed of sound!! “c” depends on chemical composition (air vs. helium), temperature (body temp. vs. room temp.), and atmospheric pressure (sea level vs. Himalayas) “c” depends on chemical composition (air vs. helium), temperature (body temp. vs. room temp.), and atmospheric pressure (sea level vs. Himalayas) dp/dt = c 2 d  /dt =   c 2 dv/dx dp/dt = c 2 d  /dt =   c 2 dv/dx A v+dv v

7. Step 3: Pressure X Area = Force Force acting on the air between  and : Force acting on the air between  and : F = pA  (p+dp)A =  A dp dynes = (cm 2 ) (d/cm 2 ) A p+dp p

8. Step 4: Force Accelerates Air Newton’s second law: Newton’s second law: F = m dv/dt = (  Adx) dv/dt  dp/dx =  dv/dt (d/cm 2 )/cm = (g/cm 3 ) (cm/s)/s A Air velocity has changed here!

9. Acoustic Constitutive Equations Newton’s Second Law: Newton’s Second Law:  dp/dx =  dv/dt Adiabatic Ideal Gas Law: Adiabatic Ideal Gas Law: dp/dt =   c 2 dv/dx Acoustic Wave Equation: Acoustic Wave Equation: d 2 p/dt 2  c 2 d 2 p/dx 2 pressure/s 2 = (cm/s) 2 pressure/cm 2 Things to notice: Things to notice: p must be a function of both time and space: p(x,t) p must be a function of both time and space: p(x,t) “c” is a speed (35400 cm/s, the speed of sound at body temperature, or 34000 cm/s at room temperature) “c” is a speed (35400 cm/s, the speed of sound at body temperature, or 34000 cm/s at room temperature) “ct” is a distance (distance traveled by sound in t seconds) “ct” is a distance (distance traveled by sound in t seconds)

10. Solution: Forward and Backward Traveling Waves Wave Number k: Wave Number k: k =  /c (radians/cm) = (radians/sec) / (cm/sec) Forward-Traveling Wave: Forward-Traveling Wave: p(x,t) = p + e j(  t-kx) = p + e j(  (t-x/c)) d 2 p/dt 2  c 2 d 2 p/dx 2  2 p + =  (kc) 2 p + Backward-Traveling Wave: Backward-Traveling Wave: p(x,t) = p - e j(  t+kx) = p - e j(  (t+x/c)) d 2 p/dt 2  c 2 d 2 p/dx 2  2 p - =  (kc) 2 p -

11. Forward and Backward Traveling Waves

12. Other Wave Quantities Worth Knowing Wave Number k: Wave Number k: k =  /c (radians/cm) = (radians/sec) / (cm/sec) Wavelength : Wavelength : = c/f = 2  /k = c/f = 2  /k (cm/cycle) = (cm/sec) / (cycles/sec) Period T: Period T: T = 1/f (seconds/cycle) = 1 / (cycles/sec)

13. Air Particle Velocity Forward-Traveling Wave Forward-Traveling Wave p(x,t)=p + e j(  (t-x/c)), v(x,t)=v + e j(  (t-x/c)) Backward-Traveling Wave Backward-Traveling Wave p(x,t)=p - e j(  (t+x/c)), v(x,t)=v - e j(  (t+x/c)) Newton’s Second Law: Newton’s Second Law:  dp/dx =  dv/dt (  /c)p + =  v +  (  /c)p - =  v - Characteristic Impedance of Air: z 0 =  c Characteristic Impedance of Air: z 0 =  c v + = p + /  c v - =  p - /  c

14. Volume Velocity In a pipe, it sometimes makes more sense to talk about movement of all of the molecules at position x, all at once. In a pipe, it sometimes makes more sense to talk about movement of all of the molecules at position x, all at once. A(x) = cross-sectional area of the pipe at position x (cm 2 ) A(x) = cross-sectional area of the pipe at position x (cm 2 ) v(x,t) = velocity of air molecules (cm/s) v(x,t) = velocity of air molecules (cm/s) u(x,t) = A(x)v(x,t) = “volume velocity” (cm 3 /s = mL/s) u(x,t) = A(x)v(x,t) = “volume velocity” (cm 3 /s = mL/s)

15. Acoustic Waves Pressure Pressure p(x,t) = e j  t (p + e -jkx + p - e jkx ) Velocity Velocity v(x,t) = e j  t (1/  c)(p + e -jkx - p - e jkx )

16. Standing Waves: Resonances in the Vocal Tract

17. Boundary Conditions L 0

18. Pressure=0 at x=L Pressure=0 at x=L 0 = p(L,t) = e j  t (p + e -jkL + p - e jkL ) 0 = p + e -jkL + p - e jkL Velocity=0 at x=0 Velocity=0 at x=0 0 = v(0,t) = e j  t (1/  c)(p + e -jk0 - p - e jk0 ) 0 = p + e -jk0 - p - e jk0 0 = p + - p - p + = p -

19. Two Equations in Two Unknowns (p + and p - ) Two Equations in Two Unknowns Two Equations in Two Unknowns 0 = p + e -jkL + p - e jkL p + = p - Combine by Variable Substitution: Combine by Variable Substitution: 0 = p + (e -jkL +e jkL )

20. …and now, more useful trigonometry… Definition of complex exponential: Definition of complex exponential: e jkL = cos(kL)+j sin(kL) e -jkL = cos(-kL)+j sin(-kL) Cosine is symmetric, Sine antisymmetric: Cosine is symmetric, Sine antisymmetric: e -jkL = cos(kL) - j sin(kL) Re-combine to get useful equalities: Re-combine to get useful equalities: cos(kL) = 0.5(e jkL +e -jkL ) sin(kL) =  0.5 j (e jkL  e -jkL )

21. Two Equations in Two Unknowns (p + and p - ) Two Equations in Two Unknowns Two Equations in Two Unknowns 0 = p + e -jkL + p - e jkL p + = p - Combine by Variable Substitution: Combine by Variable Substitution: 0 = p + (e -jkL +e jkL ) 0 = 2p + cos(kL) Two Possible Solutions: Two Possible Solutions: 0 = p + (Meaning, amplitude of the wave is 0) 0 = cos(kL) (Meaning…)

22. Resonant Frequencies of a Uniform Tube, Closed at One End, Open at the Other End p + can only be nonzero (the amplitude of the wave can only be nonzero) at frequencies that satisfy… p + can only be nonzero (the amplitude of the wave can only be nonzero) at frequencies that satisfy… 0 = cos(kL) kL = p/2, 3p/2, 5p/2, … k 1 =  /2L,  1 =  c/2L, F 1 =c/4L k 2 =3  /2L,  2 =3  c/2L, F 2 =3c/4L k 3 =5  /2L,  3 =5  c/2L, F 3 =5c/4L …

23. Resonant Frequencies of a Uniform Tube, Closed at One End, Open at the Other End For example, if the vocal tract is 17.5cm long, and the speed of sound is 350m/s at body temperature, then c/L=2000Hz, and For example, if the vocal tract is 17.5cm long, and the speed of sound is 350m/s at body temperature, then c/L=2000Hz, and F 1 =500Hz F 2 =1500Hz F 3 =2500Hz

24. Closed at One End, Open at the Other End = “Quarter-Wave Resonator” The wavelength are: The wavelength are: 1 =  L 1 =  L 2 =4L/3 2 =4L/3 3 =4L/5 3 =4L/5

25. Standing Wave Patterns The pressure and velocity are The pressure and velocity are p(x,t) = p + e j  t (e -jkx +e jkx ) v(x,t) = e j  t (p + /  c)(e -jkx -e jkx ) Remember that p + encodes both the magnitude and phase, like this: Remember that p + encodes both the magnitude and phase, like this: p + =P + e j  Re{p(x,t)} = 2P + cos(wt+  ) cos(kx) Re{v(x,t)} = (2P + /  c)cos(wt+  ) sin(kx)

26. Standing Wave Patterns The “standing wave pattern” is the part that doesn’t depend on time: The “standing wave pattern” is the part that doesn’t depend on time: |p(x)| = 2P + cos(kx) |v(x)| = (2P + /  c) sin(kx)

27. Standing Wave Patterns: Quarter- Wave Resonators Tube Closed at the Left End, Open at the Right End

28. Half-Wave Resonators If the tube is open at x=0 and at x=L, then boundary conditions are p(0,t)=0 and p(L,t)=0 If the tube is open at x=0 and at x=L, then boundary conditions are p(0,t)=0 and p(L,t)=0 If the tube is closed at x=0 and at x=L, then boundary conditions are v(0,t)=0 and v(L,t)=0 If the tube is closed at x=0 and at x=L, then boundary conditions are v(0,t)=0 and v(L,t)=0 In either case, the resonances are: In either case, the resonances are: F 1 =0, F 2 =c/2L, F 3 =c/L,, F 3 =3c/2L Example, vocal tract closed at both ends: Example, vocal tract closed at both ends: F 1 =0, F 2 =1000Hz, F 3 =2000Hz,, F 3 =3000Hz

29. Standing Wave Patterns: Half-Wave Resonators Tube Closed at Both Ends Tube Open at Both Ends

30. Schwa and Invv (the vowels in “a tug”) F1=500Hz=c/4L F2=1500Hz=3c/4L F3=2500Hz=5c/4L

31. Front Cavity Resonances of a Fricative /s/: Front Cavity Resonance = 4500Hz 4500Hz = c/4L if Front Cavity Length is L=1.9cm /sh/: Front Cavity Resonance = 2200Hz 2200Hz = c/4L if Front Cavity Length is L=4.0cm

32. Summary Newton’s Second Law: Newton’s Second Law:  dp/dx =  dv/dt Adiabatic Ideal Gas Law: Adiabatic Ideal Gas Law: dp/dt =   c 2 dv/dx Acoustic Wave Equation: Acoustic Wave Equation: d 2 p/dt 2  c 2 d 2 p/dx 2 Pressure Solutions Solutions p(x,t) = e j  t (p + e -jkx + p - e jkx ) v(x,t) = e j  t (1/  c)(p + e -jkx - p - e jkx ) Resonances Resonances Quarter-wave resonator: F 1 =c/4L, F 2 =3c/4L, F 3 =5c/4L Quarter-wave resonator: F 1 =c/4L, F 2 =3c/4L, F 3 =5c/4L Half-wave resonator: F 1 =0, F 2 =c/2L, F 3 =c/L Half-wave resonator: F 1 =0, F 2 =c/2L, F 3 =c/L Standing-wave Patterns Standing-wave Patterns |p(x)| = 2P + cos(kx) |v(x)| = (2P + /  c) sin(kx)