1. Programming Practice 4 2006. 05. 17

2. Introduction Tree Operations. Binary Search Tree. File Processing Create, read, write and update files. Sequential access file processing. Random-access file processing.

3. Trees Tree nodes contain two or more links All other data structures we have discussed only contain one Binary trees All nodes contain two links None, one, or both of which may be NULL The root node is the first node in a tree. Each link in the root node refers to a child A node with no children is called a leaf node

4. Trees

5. Trees Data Structure struct treenode { int data; /*define data as int */ struct treenode * leftPtr ; /* tree node pointer */ struct treenode * rightPtr ; /* tree node pointer */ }; typedef struct treenode TreeNode; typedef TreeNode * TreeNodePtr; TreeNode * rootPtr ;

6. Tree Operations Insert when tree is empty. Insert when tree is not empty. if (treePtr == NULL) treePtr = malloc(); treePtr->data = value; treePtr->leftPtr = NULL; treePtr->rightPtr = NULL; If( treePtr != NULL && condition) treePtr->leftPtr = currentPtr ; If( treePtr != NULL && condition) treePtr->rightPtr = currentPtr;

7. Binary search tree Values in left subtree less than parent Values in right subtree greater than parent Facilitates duplicate elimination Fast searches - for a balanced tree, maximum of log n comparisons

8. Binary search tree Operations Insert Recursive function. When tree is empty, allocate treenode. ( finish condition ) When tree is not empty currentPtr’s value is bigger than your value, Call Insert function whose argument is currentPtr->leftPtr recursively. currentPtr’s value is less than your value, Call insert function whose argument is currentPtr->rightPtr recursively. Delete is omitted because it is difficult.

9. Binary Search Tree Operations 7 3 11 1 18 5 9 Insert(root,7) 7 Insert(root,3) 7>3 empty Insert(root->leftPtr, 1) 3 Insert(root,11) 7<11 Insert(root->rightPtr,3) empty 11 Insert(root,1) 7>1 3>1 Insert(root->leftPtr->leftPtr, 1) empty 11859

10. Binary Search Tree Operations Void insertNode(TreeNodePtr *treePtr, int value) { if(*treePtr = NULL ) /* finish condition */ malloc(); /* tree node initialization */ return ; if((*treePtr)->value > value ) insertNode(); // recursive call if((*treePtr)->value < value ) insertNode(); // recursive call if((*treePtr)->value == value ) printf(“dup”); }

11. Tree traversals Inorder traversal – prints the node values in ascending order 1. Traverse the left subtree with an inorder traversal 2. Process the value in the node (i.e., print the node value) 3. Traverse the right subtree with an inorder traversal Preorder traversal 1. Process the value in the node 2. Traverse the left subtree with a preorder traversal 3. Traverse the right subtree with a preorder traversal Postorder traversal 1. Traverse the left subtree with a postorder traversal 2. Traverse the right subtree with a postorder traversal 3. Process the value in the node Traversals can be implemented using recursive functions.

12. Inorder Void inOrder (TreeNodePtr treePtr) { /* end condition */ if(treePtr == NULL) return; if(treePtr != NULL) { inOrder(treePtr->leftPtr) ; printf(); inOrder(treePtr->rightPtr); } 2 13

13. PreOrder Void preOrder (TreeNodePtr treePtr) { /* end condition */ if(treePtr == NULL) return; if(treePtr != NULL) { printf(); preOrder(treePtr->leftPtr) ; preOrder(treePtr->rightPtr); } 1 23

14. PostOrder Void postOrder (TreeNodePtr treePtr) { /* end condition */ if(treePtr == NULL) return; if(treePtr != NULL) { postOrder(treePtr->leftPtr) ; postOrder(treePtr->rightPtr); printf(); } 3 12

15. Tree Traversals Examples

16. Trees (recursive)

17. Trees

18. Files Data files Can be created, updated, and processed by C programs Are used for permanent storage of large amounts of data Storage of data in variables and arrays is only temporary

19. The Data Hierarchy Data Hierarchy: Bit – smallest data item Value of 0 or 1 Byte – 8 bits Used to store a character Decimal digits, letters, and special symbols Field – group of characters conveying meaning Example: your name Record – group of related fields Represented by a struct or a class Example: In a payroll system, a record for a particular employee that contained his/her identification number, name, address, etc.

20. The Data Hierarchy Data Hierarchy (continued): File – group of related records Example: payroll file Database – group of related files

21. Files and Streams C views each file as a sequence of bytes File ends with the end-of-file marker Or, file ends at a specified byte Stream created when a file is opened Provide communication channel between files and programs Opening a file returns a pointer to a FILE structure Example file pointers: stdin - standard input (keyboard) stdout - standard output (screen) stderr - standard error (screen)

22. Files and Streams FILE structure File descriptor Index into operating system array called the open file table File Control Block (FCB) Found in every array element, system uses it to administer the file

23. Files and Streams

24. Read/Write functions in standard library fgetc Reads one character from a file Takes a FILE pointer as an argument fgetc( stdin ) equivalent to getchar() fputc Writes one character to a file Takes a FILE pointer and a character to write as an argument fputc( 'a', stdout ) equivalent to putchar( 'a' ) fgets Reads a line from a file fputs Writes a line to a file fscanf / fprintf File processing equivalents of scanf and printf

25. fig11_03.c (1 of 2)

26. fig11_03.c (2 of 2) Program Output Enter the account, name, and balance. Enter EOF to end input. ? 100 Jones 24.98 ? 200 Doe 345.67 ? 300 White 0.00 ? 400 Stone -42.16 ? 500 Rich 224.62 ? ^Z

27. Creating a Sequential Access File C imposes no file structure No notion of records in a file Programmer must provide file structure Creating a File FILE *cfPtr; Creates a FILE pointer called cfPtr cfPtr = fopen(“clients.dat", “w”); Function fopen returns a FILE pointer to file specified Takes two arguments – file to open and file open mode If open fails, NULL returned

28. End-of-file key combinations

29. Creating a Sequential Access File fprintf Used to print to a file Like printf, except first argument is a FILE pointer (pointer to the file you want to print in) feof( FILE pointer ) Returns true if end-of-file indicator (no more data to process) is set for the specified file fclose( FILE pointer ) Closes specified file Performed automatically when program ends Good practice to close files explicitly Details Programs may process no files, one file, or many files Each file must have a unique name and should have its own pointer

30. File Open Modes

31. Reading a sequential access file Create a FILE pointer, link it to the file to read cfPtr = fopen( “clients.dat", "r" ); Use fscanf to read from the file Like scanf, except first argument is a FILE pointer fscanf( cfPtr, "%d%s%f", &accounnt, name, &balance ); Data read from beginning to end File position pointer Indicates number of next byte to be read / written Not really a pointer, but an integer value (specifies byte location) Also called byte offset rewind( cfPtr ) Repositions file position pointer to beginning of file (byte 0 )

32. fig11_07.c (1 of 2)

33. fig11_07.c (2 of 2) Account Name Balance 100 Jones 24.98 200 Doe 345.67 300 White 0.00 400 Stone -42.16 500 Rich 224.62

34. fig11_08.c (1 of 5)

35. fig11_08.c (2 of 5)

36. fig11_08.c (3 of 5)

37. fig11_08.c (4 of 5)

38. fig11_08.c (5 of 5) Program Output Enter request 1 - List accounts with zero balances 2 - List accounts with credit balances 3 - List accounts with debit balances 4 - End of run ? 1 Accounts with zero balances: 300 White 0.00 ? 2 Accounts with credit balances: 400 Stone -42.16 ? 3 Accounts with debit balances: 100 Jones 24.98 200 Doe 345.67 500 Rich 224.62 ? 4 End of run.

39. Reading Data from a Sequential Access File Sequential access file Cannot be modified without the risk of destroying other data Fields can vary in size Different representation in files and screen than internal representation 1, 34, -890 are all int s, but have different sizes on disk 300 White 0.00 400 Jones 32.87 (old data in file) If we want to change White's name to Worthington, 300 White 0.00 400 Jones 32.87 300 Worthington 0.00ones 32.87 300 Worthington 0.00 Data gets overwritten

40. Random-Access Files Random access files Access individual records without searching through other records Instant access to records in a file Data can be inserted without destroying other data Data previously stored can be updated or deleted without overwriting Implemented using fixed length records Sequential files do not have fixed length records 0200300400500 byte offsets } } } } } } } 100 100 bytes

41. Creating a Random Access File Data in random access files Unformatted (stored as "raw bytes") All data of the same type ( int s, for example) uses the same amount of memory All records of the same type have a fixed length Data not human readable

42. Creating a Random Access File Unformatted I/O functions fwrite Transfer bytes from a location in memory to a file fread Transfer bytes from a file to a location in memory Example: fwrite( &number, sizeof( int ), 1, myPtr ); &number – Location to transfer bytes from sizeof( int ) – Number of bytes to transfer 1 – For arrays, number of elements to transfer In this case, "one element" of an array is being transferred myPtr – File to transfer to or from

43. Creating a Random Access File Writing struct s fwrite( &myObject, sizeof (struct myStruct), 1, myPtr ); sizeof – returns size in bytes of object in parentheses To write several array elements Pointer to array as first argument Number of elements to write as third argument

44. fig11_11.c (1 of 2)

45. fig11_11.c (2 of 2)

46. Writing Data Randomly to a Randomly Accessed File fseek Sets file position pointer to a specific position fseek( pointer, offset, symbolic_constant ); pointer – pointer to file offset – file position pointer (0 is first location) symbolic_constant – specifies where in file we are reading from SEEK_SET – seek starts at beginning of file SEEK_CUR – seek starts at current location in file SEEK_END – seek starts at end of file

47. fig11_12.c (1 of 3)

48. fig11_12.c (2 of 3)

49. fig11_12.c (3 of 3) Program Output Enter account number ( 1 to 100, 0 to end input ) ? 37 Enter lastname, firstname, balance ? Barker Doug 0.00 Enter account number ? 29 Enter lastname, firstname, balance ? Brown Nancy -24.54 Enter account number ? 96 Enter lastname, firstname, balance ? Stone Sam 34.98 Enter account number ? 88 Enter lastname, firstname, balance ? Smith Dave 258.34 Enter account number ? 33 Enter lastname, firstname, balance ? Dunn Stacey 314.33 Enter account number ? 0

50. Writing Data Randomly to a Randomly Accessed File

51. Reading Data Randomly from a Randomly Accessed File fread Reads a specified number of bytes from a file into memory fread( &client, sizeof (struct clientData), 1, myPtr ); Can read several fixed-size array elements Provide pointer to array Indicate number of elements to read To read multiple elements, specify in third argument

52. fig11_15.c (1 of 2)

53. fig11_15.c (2 of 2)

54. Program Output Acct Last Name First Name Balance 29 Brown Nancy -24.54 33 Dunn Stacey 314.33 37 Barker Doug 0.00 88 Smith Dave 258.34 96 Stone Sam 34.98

55. Homework Implement the binary search tree insertNode, inOrder, preOrder, postOrder You can implement these functions using recursive technique. No deleteNode. Test minimum 3 input cases. One week.

56. Project Change code design using linked list. Sorted insert is recommended. Design the User’s information file contents and code to save and load the information.