1. Daniel J. Clauw M.D. dclauw@umich.edu Professor of Anesthesiology, Medicine (Rheumatology), and Psychiatry Director, Chronic Pain and Fatigue Research Center The University of Michigan Treating Chronic Pain Based on the Underlying Mechanism: Are We There Yet?

2. Disclosures ■ Consulting ■ Pfizer, Forest, Eli Lilly, Pierre Fabre, Cypress Biosciences, Wyeth, UCB, Astra Zeneca, Merck, J & J, Nuvo, Jazz, Abbott, Cerephex, Iroko, Tonix, Theravance, IMC, Zynerba, Sammumed ■ Research support ■ Pfizer, Cypress Biosciences, Forest, Merck, Nuvo, Cerephex ■ One-time licensing fee paid to University of Michigan by Eli Lilly

3. Which person has pain?

4. Osteoarthritis of the knee - I ■ Classic “peripheral” pain syndrome ■ Poor relationship between structural abnormalities and symptoms 1. In population-based studies: ■ 30 – 40% of individuals who have grade 3/4 K/L radiographic OA have no symptoms ■ 10% of individuals with severe pain have normal radiographs ■ Psychological factors explain very little of the variance between symptoms and structure 2 ■ We sometimes delude ourselves into thinking that our current therapies are adequate ■ NSAIDs, acetaminophen, and even opioids have small effect sizes 3,4 ■ Arthroplasty does not predictably relieve pain (1) Creamer P, et. al. Br J Rheumatol 1997; 36(7):726-8. (2) Creamer P, et. al. Arthritis Care Res 1998; 11(1):60- 5. (3) Bjordal JM, et. al. Eur J Pain 2007; 11(2):125-38. (4) Zhang W, et. al. Ann Rheum Dis 2004; 63(8):901-7.

5. Mechanistic Characterization of Pain Any combination may be present in a given individual Peripheral (nociceptive) ■ Inflammation or mechanical damage in tissues ■ NSAID, opioid responsive ■ Responds to procedures ■ Classic examples ■ Acute pain due to injury ■ Osteoarthritis ■ Rheumatoid arthritis ■ Cancer pain Peripheral Neuropathic ■ Damage or dysfunction of peripheral nerves ■ Responds to both peripheral (NSAIDs, opioids, Na channel blockers) and central (TCA’s, neuroactive compounds) pharmacological therapy ■ Classic examples ■ Diabetic neuropathic pain ■ Post-herpetic neuralgia Centralized Pain ■ Characterized by central disturbance in pain processing (diffuse hyperalgesia/allodynia) ■ Responsive to neuroactive compounds altering levels of neurotransmitters involved in pain transmission ■ Classic examples ■ Fibromyalgia ■ Irritable bowel syndrome ■ TMJD ■ Tension headache Mixed Pain States

6. Pain and sensory sensitivity in the population ■ Like most other physiological processes, we have a “volume control” setting for how our brain and spinal cord processes pain 1 ■ This is likely set by the genes that we are born with 2-4, and modified by neurohormonal factors and neural plasticity ■ The higher the volume control setting, the more pain we will experience, irrespective of peripheral nociceptive input 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Tenderness % of Population Diffuse hyperalgesia or allodynia 1. Mogil JS. PNAS, 1999;96(14):7744-51. 2. Amaya et. al. J Neuroscience 2006;26(50):12852-60. 3. Tegeder et.al., NatMed. 2006;12(11):1269-77. 4. Diatchenko et. al. HumMolGenet. 2005;14(1):135-43.

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8. Centralized pain states - I ■ This is an acknowledged misnomer ■ In aggregate this may be the most common and costly illness in humans ■ It is a chronic multi-symptom illness that typically begins in childhood or young adulthood ■ Characterized by: ■ Chronic pain or irritation in various body regions (headache, irritable bowel, temporomandibular joint disorder, interstitial cystitis, etc.) that moves throughout the body over the life of the individual ■ Multiple other somatic symptoms of CNS origin (fatigue, sleep, mood, memory) ■ Sensitivity to sensory stimuli a common symptom

9. Centralized pain states - II ■ This goes by many names and in aggregate is extremely common: ■ Chronic Overlapping Conditions – FM, IBS, HA, TMJD, interstitial cystitis, dry eye disease (NIH PA 14-244) ■ By the stressful trigger ■ Post-deployment this is called Gulf War Syndrome (first Gulf War) or mild TBI (current conflicts) ■ Post-infection by the name of the triggering infection (post-Lyme disease, chronic EBV) ■ As “centralized pain” or “central sensitization” in existing chronic pain conditions where there is known nociceptive input ■ As somatization by some in psychiatry, although this term is (appropriately) falling into disuse as we understand the biology of these illnesses

10. The F-Word Evolution of Thinking Regarding Fibromyalgia AnteriorPosterior ■ Discrete illness ■ Focal areas of tenderness ■ Psychologic and behavioral factors nearly always present and negative ■ Chronic widespread pain ■ Tenderness in ≥11 of 18 tender points American College of Rheumatology (ACR) Criteria ■ Final common pathway (i.e. centralization) ■ Part of a larger continuum ■ Many somatic symptoms, diffuse tenderness ■ Psychologic and behavioral factors play roles in some individuals

11. Concept of “Fibromyalgia-ness” 11 1.Wolfe et. al. Arthritis Rheum. Jun 15 2009;61(6):715-716. 2. Wolfe et. al. 2.J Rheumatol. Feb 1 2011. 3. Clauw DJ. JAMA, 2014.

12. Fibromyalgia-ness ■ Term coined by Wolfe to indicate that the symptoms of FM occur as a continuum in the population rather than being present or absent 1 ■ In rheumatic disorders such as osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, low back pain, etc. this score is more predictive of pain levels and disability than more objective measures of disease 2,3 ■ Domain overlaps with somatization in many regards, and there are many questionnaires that collect somatic symptom counts as a surrogate for this construct 1.Wolfe et. al. Arthritis Rheum. Jun 15 2009;61(6):715-716. 2. Wolfe et. al. 2.J Rheumatol. Feb 1 2011. 3. Clauw DJ. JAMA, 2014.

13. Fibromyalgia Centralized pain in individuals with any chronic pain condition

14. Centralization Continuum Proportion of individuals in chronic pain states that have centralized their pain Peripheral Centralized Acute pain Osteoarthritis SC disease Fibromyalgia RA Ehler’s Danlos Tension HA Low back pain TMJD IBS

15. ■ Prevalence ■ Categorical diagnosis of FM affects 2 – 8% of population depending on criteria used 1 ■ Other chronic overlapping conditions each affect 5 – 20% of population ■ Centralized pain occurs in at least 20% of individuals with any chronic pain state ■ These conditions cluster in individuals and families 2 ■ 1.5 to 2x more common in females ■ Strong familial/genetic underpinnings ■ Take family history of pain ■ Triggered or exacerbated by stressors 3 Etiology 1. Clauw JAMA 2014. 2. Kato K, et al. Psychol Med. 2008;39:497-505. 3. Ablin K, Clauw DJ. Rheum Dis Clin North Am. 2009; 35:233-251.

16. “Stressors” Capable of Triggering These Illnesses (Supported by Case-Control Studies 1,2 ) ■ Early life stressors 3 ■ Children born in 1958 who had experienced a motor traffic accident or who were institutionalized were 1.5 – 2X more likely to have CWP 42 years later ■ Peripheral pain syndromes (e.g. RA, SLE, osteoarthritis) 4 ■ Physical trauma (automobile accidents) 5 ■ Post-deployment 6 (now poly-trauma triad often seen) ■ Infections 7 ■ Psychological stress/distress 1. Clauw D, et al. Neuroimmunomodulation. 1997;4:134-153. 2. McLean SA, et al. Med Hypotheses. 2004;63:653-658. 3. Jones et. al. 2007 ACR meeting. 4. Clauw et. al. JCR 1997. 5. McBeth 2006 ACR meeting. 6. Clauw et. al. J Occup Environ Med. 2003 Oct;45(10):1040-8. 7. Ablin et. al Sem Arthritis Rheum 2009.

17. Pathophysiology of centralized pain states ■ Augmented pain and sensory processing on quantitative sensory testing and functional neuroimaging 1,3 ■ Manifest by increased connectivity to pro-nociceptive brain regions and decreased connectivity to anti- nociceptive regions 2,3 ■ These abnormalities are being driven by imbalances in concentrations of CNS neurotransmitters that control sensory processing, sleep, alertness, affect, memory 3,4 ■ Autonomic, HPA, and peripheral abnormalities may play some role 1. Phillips, K. and D.J. Clauw. Arthritis Rheum, 2013. 65(2): p. 291-302. 2. Napadow, V., et al., Arthritis Rheum, 2012. 64(7): p. 2398-403. 3. Harris, R.E., et. al. Anesthesiology, 2013. 119(6): p. 1453-1464. 4.Schmidt-Wilcke, T. and D.J. Clauw, Nature reviews. Rheumatology, 2011. 7(9): p. 518-27.

18. fMRI in Chronic Pain States ■ There is objective evidence of augmented pain processing in a broad range of hyperalgesic pain states 1-4 ■ Depression and pain are overlapping neurobiological proccesses 5 ■ How individuals think about their pain can affect both the sensory and affective processing of pain 6 1. Gracely et al. Arthritis Rheum. 2002;46:1333-43. 2. Mayer et. Al. Gatstroenterology 2006:: (131):1925-31. 3. Giesecke et al. Arthritis Rheum. 2004;50:613-23 4. Giesecke et al. Arthritis Rheum. 2003;48:2916-22. 5. Gracely et al. Brain. 2004;127:835-43..

19. fMRI in Fibromyalgia Pain Intensity Stimulus Intensity (kg/cm 2 ) 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 1.52.53.54.5 Fibromyalgia Subjective Pain Control Stimulus Pressure Control) IPLSII STG, Insula, Putamen Cerebellum SI SI (decrease) STG=superior temporal gyri; SI=primary somatosensory cortex SII=secondary somatosensory cortex; IPL=inferior parietal lobule. Gracely. Arthritis Rheum. 2002;46:1333-1343.

20. Intrinsic Brain Connectivity is Altered in FM patients In FM, DMN and rEAN show greater intrinsic connectivity within component DMN (PCC), and rEAN (iPS) as well as limbic (insula), and sensorimotor (SII) regions outside conventional network boundaries. A ll FM vs. HC differences driven by greater connectivity for FM patients. Napadow et al, Arthritis Rheumatism 2010

21. Structural Brain Changes in Chronic Pain ■ Apkarian 1 was first to show that chronic pain may be associated with decrease of size of brain areas involved in pain processing ■ More recently seen in other pain states including ■ Headache (insula and ACC) 2 ■ IBS (insula and ACC) 3 ■ Fibromyalgia 4 (multiple regions) ■ PTSD 5 (insula) ■ A note of caution ■ After carefully controlling for co-morbid mood disturbances much of this went away 6 1. Apkarian et al. J Neurosci. 2004;24:10410-5. 2. Schmidt-Wilcke et al. Pain. 2007;132 Suppl 1:S109-16. 3. Davis et al. Neurology. 2008;70:153-4. 4. Kuchinad et al. J Neurosci. 2007;27:4004-7. 5. Chen et al. Psychiatry Res. 2006;146:65-72. 6. Hsu et. al. Pain. Jun 2009;143(3):262-267.

22. Specific Underlying Mechanisms Leading to Central Augmentation Decreased descending analgesic activity ■ Absent or attenuated DNIC (or CPM) in many pain conditions including OA, FM and IBS 1-3 ■ Duloxetine leads to increased DNIC/CPM in healthy controls 4, and diminished DNIC predicts responsiveness in neuropathic pain 1. Kosek and Hansson. Pain. 1997;70:41-51. 2. Julien et al. Pain. 2005;114:295-302. 3. Wilder-Smith and Robert-Yap. World J. Gastroenterol. 2007;13:3699-704. 4. Yarnitsky, 2008 IASP meeting

23. Specific Underlying Mechanisms in Central Pain States ■ Global problem with sensory processing (i.e. interoception) ■ FM patients equally sensitive to loudness of auditory tones 1 ■ Insular hyper-reactivity consistently seen 2-4 ■ H-MRS studies showing increased glutamate and decreased GABA levels in posterior insula 5 1. Geisser et al. J Pain. 2008;9:417-22. 2. Gracely et al. Arthritis Rheum. 2002;46:1333-43. 3. Giesecke et al. Arthritis Rheum. 2004;50:613-23. 4. Cook et al. J Rheumatol. 2004;31:364-78. 5. Harris et al. Arthritis Rheum. 2008;58:903-7.

24. Neural Influences on Pain and Sensory Processing + ■ Substance P ■ Glutamate and EAA ■ Serotonin (5HT 2a, 3a ) ■ Nerve growth factor ■ Descending anti- nociceptive pathways ■ Norepinephrine- serotonin (5HT 1a,b ), dopamine ■ Opioids ■ GABA ■ Cannabanoids Facilitation Inhibition 1.Schmidt-Wilcke T, Clauw DJ. Nat Rev Rheumatol. Jul 19 2011. 2.Clauw DJ. JAMA. 2014.

25. Treating Peripheral Pain Generators May Reduce Hyperalgesia and Central Sensitization ■ Female patients with FM and either (a) myofascial pain (n=68) or (b) concurrent OA (n=56). ■ Patients were randomized to receive (a) myofascial trigger point injection vs. sham needling, or (b) steroid ionophoresis to affected joint or sham ionophoresis. ■ After therapy, in active – but not placebo-treated groups: number and intensity of myofascial/joint episodes and paracetamol consumption decreased and pressure thresholds at trigger/joint increased (p < 0.001); FM pain intensity decreased and all thresholds increased progressively in tender points and the non-painful site (p < 0.0001). G. Affaitati et al. / European Journal of Pain 2010; in press.

26. The Use of Multi-modal Imaging Techniques in Drug Discovery Pregabalin in Fibromyalgia Harris et. al., Anesthesiology, 2013

27. Pregabalin Reduces Glx Following pregabalin treatment, FM patients display reductions in posterior insula Glx, but not following placebo. This was not seen for the anterior insula. N=17 patients with complete data and no adverse events.

28. Glx Predicts Pregabalin Response Pre-treatment Glx predicts subsequent anti-hyperalgesic response

29. DMN Connectivity to Right Insula is Correlated with Clinical Pain at the time of the Scan Napadow et al, Arthritis & Rheumatism 2010

30. Pharmacological Therapies for Fibromyalgia (i.e. Centralized Pain) Modified from Goldenberg et al. JAMA. 2004;292:2388-95. Strong Evidence ■ Dual reuptake inhibitors such as ■ Tricyclic compounds (amitriptyline, cyclobenzaprine) ■ SNRIs and NSRIs (milnacipran, duloxetine, venlafaxine?) ■ Anticonvulsants (e.g., pregabalin, gabapentin) Modest Evidence ■ Tramadol ■ Older less selective SSRIs ■ Gamma hydroxybutyrate ■ Low dose naltrexone ■ Cannabinoids Weak Evidence ■ Growth hormone, 5-hydroxytryptamine, tropisetron, S-adenosyl- L-methionine (SAMe) No Evidence ■ Opioids, corticosteroids, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, benzodiazepine and nonbenzodiazepine hypnotics, guanifenesin

31. CNS Neurotransmitters Influencing Pain Arrows indicate direction in Fibromyalgia + ■ Glutamate ■ Substance P ■ Nerve growth factor ■ Serotonin (5HT 2a, 3a ) ■ Descending anti- nociceptive pathways ■ Norepinephrine- serotonin (5HT 1a,b ), dopamine ■ Opioids ■ Cannabanoids ■ GABA Generally facilitate pain transmission 1.Schmidt-Wilcke T, Clauw DJ. Nat Rev Rheumatol. Jul 19 2011. 2.Clauw DJ. JAMA. 2014. Generally inhibit pain transmission Gabapentinoids, ketamine, memantine Low dose naltrexone Tricyclics, SNRIs. tramadol Anti-migraine drugs (–triptans), cyclobenzaprine Gammahydroxybutyrate, moderate alcohol consumption No knowledge of endocannabinoid activity but this class of drugs is effective

32. Mechanistic Characterization of Pain Any combination may be present in a given individual Peripheral (nociceptive) ■ Inflammation or mechanical damage in tissues ■ NSAID, opioid responsive ■ Responds to procedures ■ Classic examples ■ Acute pain due to injury ■ Osteoarthritis ■ Rheumatoid arthritis ■ Cancer pain Peripheral Neuropathic ■ Damage or dysfunction of peripheral nerves ■ Responds to both peripheral (NSAIDs, opioids, Na channel blockers) and central (TCA’s, neuroactive compounds) pharmacological therapy ■ Classic examples ■ Diabetic neuropathic pain ■ Post-herpetic neuralgia Central Neuropathic or Centralized Pain ■ Characterized by central disturbance in pain processing (diffuse hyperalgesia/allodynia) ■ Responsive to neuroactive compounds altering levels of neurotransmitters involved in pain transmission ■ Classic examples ■ Fibromyalgia ■ Irritable bowel syndrome ■ TMJD ■ Tension headache Mixed Pain States

33. Treating Based on Mechanisms Any combination may be present Peripheral (nociceptive) Neuropathic Centralized Pain NSAIDs +-- Opioids ++- Surgery/ Injections ++- Tricyclics +++ SNRIs +++ Gabapentinoid -++ Cannabinoid -++

34. Osteoarthritis of the Knee ─ II ■ Subsets of patients with OA of the knee display hyperalgesia and attenuated DNIC. 1 ■ In past years, 2 classes of neuroactive drugs likely acting on volume control of pain processing have been shown to be effective: ■ Duloxetine (formerly tricyclic drugs had shown this same effect but have not gained wide usage) 2 ■ Tanezumab, a nerve growth factor inhibitor 3 ■ Functional and structural neuroimaging results from Tracey group ■ Identify hyperalgesia/central sensitization in OA ■ Show that thalamic atrophy on VBM at baselone in knee OA normalizes following arthroplasty 1. Kosek E, Ordeberg G. Pain. 2000;88:69-78. 2-4. Clauw DJ, et al. Presented at: 2008 American College of Rheumatology Annual Meeting; October 24, 2008; San Francisco, CA; and 2008 International Association for the Study of Pain meeting; August 17, 2008; Glasgow, Scotland. 5. Gwilym et. al.. Arthritis Rheum. 2009 Sep 15;61(9):1226-34. 6. Gwilym et.al. Arthritis Rheum Vol. 62, No. 10, October 2010, pp 2930–2940

35. Chronic low back pain (CLBP) ■ Well known poor relationship between structural abnormalities and pain ■ Several studies have demonstrated diffuse hyperalgesia at neutral sites in individuals with ICLP 1,2 Tenderness at thumb a greater predictor of pain and functional status than X-ray/MRI of back or psychological factors 1 ■ Functional MRI studies have demonstrated central pain augmentation very similar to that seen in fibromyalgia 2 ■ GCH1 haplotype predicts decreased pain following discectomy 3 1. Clauw DJ, et. al. Spine 1999 Oct 1;24(19):2035-41. 2. Giesecke T, et. al. Arthritis Rheum. 2004 Feb;50(2):613-23. 3. Tegeder I, et. al., Nat.Med. 2006 Nov;12(11):1269-77.

36. Ongoing Study of Predictors of Outcomes in OA Patients Undergoing Knee and Hip Arthroplasty, and Hysterectomy ■ Primary hypothesis of study is the measures of centralized pain in OA (Fmness) will predict failure to respond to surgery and opiods ■ Extensive preoperative phenotype using validated self-report measures of pain, mood, and function ■ Two outcomes of interest: ■ Postoperative opioid consumption ■ Pain relief from procedure at 6 months 36 Brummett et. al., Anesthesiology, 2013; Janda et. al. Anesthesiology 2015; Brummett et. al. Arthritis and Rheumatology 2015

37. Variables Analyzed ■ Age ■ Sex ■ Surgery (Knee vs Hip) ■ Primary anesthetic (GA vs neuraxial) ■ Home opioids (IVME) ■ Pain severity (BPI) ■ Overall ■ Surgical site ■ Neuropathic pain score (PainDETECT) ■ Depression (HADS) ■ Anxiety (HADS) ■ Catastrophizing ■ Physical function- WOMAC 37

38. Concept of “Fibromyalgia-ness” 38 1.Wolfe et. al. Arthritis Rheum. Jun 15 2009;61(6):715-716. 2. Wolfe et. al. 2.J Rheumatol. Feb 1 2011. 3. Clauw DJ. JAMA, 2014.

39. Each one point increase in fibromyalgianess led to: ■ 7-9 mg greater oral morphine requirements during acute hospitalization (8mg greater when all individuals taking opioids as outpatients excluded) ■ 18% greater likelihood of failing to respond to knee or hip arthroplasty (judged by either 50% improvement in pain or much better or very much better on patient global) ■ All these changes were independent of and much stronger effects than that seen with anxiety, depression, catastrophizing ■ These phenomenon were linear across entire scale and equally strong after individuals who met criteria for FM were excluded

40. 40 Brummett CM et al. Unpublished data Patient A Patient B Compared to Patient A with localized pain and no somatic symptoms, Patient B would need 80mg more OME during first 48 hours of hospitalization, and would be 180% less likely to have improvement in pain at 6 months

41. Treating Peripheral Pain Generators May Reduce Hyperalgesia and Central Sensitization ■ Female patients with FM and either (a) myofascial pain (n=68) or (b) concurrent OA (n=56). ■ Patients were randomized to receive (a) myofascial trigger point injection vs. sham needling, or (b) steroid ionophoresis to affected joint or sham ionophoresis. ■ After therapy, in active – but not placebo-treated groups: number and intensity of myofascial/joint episodes and paracetamol consumption decreased and pressure thresholds at trigger/joint increased (p < 0.001); FM pain intensity decreased and all thresholds increased progressively in tender points and the non-painful site (p < 0.0001). G. Affaitati et al. / European Journal of Pain 2010; in press.

42. ■ Pharmacological therapies to improve symptoms ■ Increased Distress ■ Decreased activity ■ Isolation ■ Poor sleep ■ Maladaptive illness behaviors ■ Nociceptive processes (damage or inflammation of tissues) ■ Disordered sensory processing Clauw and Crofford. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol. 2003;17:685-701. Symptoms of Pain, Fatigue, etc. Functional Consequences of Symptoms Dually Focused Treatment ■ Nonpharmacological therapies to address dysfunction

43. Nonpharmacological Therapies are similar to those for any Chronic Pain State Goldenberg et al. JAMA. 2004;292:2388-95. Strong Evidence ■ Education ■ Aerobic exercise ■ Cognitive behavior therapy Modest Evidence ■ Strength training ■ Hypnotherapy, biofeedback, balneotherapy Weak Evidence ■ Acupuncture, chiropractic, manual and massage therapy, electrotherapy, ultrasound No Evidence ■ Tender (trigger) point injections, flexibility exercise

44. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Chronic Pain ■ Shown to be effective over a wide range of pain states ■ Effect sizes on function (.4 -.6) are much greater than typically seen with pharmacological therapies ■ Despite wide agreement that these help, barriers to implementation have been: ■ Physicians do not strongly recommend these therapies and there is no “industry” promoting these therapies ■ Not generally reimbursed by third parties ■ Not enough trained therapists to give one-on-one CBT to all chronic pain patients

45. 45 ■ Program features 10 CBT modules: ■ Understanding Fibromyalgia ■ Being Active ■ Sleep ■ Relaxation ■ Time for You ■ Setting Goals ■ Pacing Yourself ■ Thinking Differently ■ Communicating ■ Fibro Fog www.fibroguide.med.umich.edu In a RCT of 118 FM patients comparing the earlier version of this website plus usual care, to usual care alone, Williams demonstrated statistically significant improvements in pain (29% in the WEB group had 30% improvement in pain vs 8% in usual care, p=.009) and function (i.e., 31% in WEB-SM had.5 SD improvement in SF-36 PF vs. 6% in standard care, p<.002) Williams et. al. Pain. 2010;151(3):694-702

46. Exercise to Treat Chronic Pain ■ OA of knee. ■ SMD of.40 for pain and.37 for physical function. Studies that involved direct supervision of 12 or more sessions somewhat more likely to lead to improvement. ■ OA of the hip. ■ Small improvement in pain but not function. ■ Fibromyalgia. ■ Aerobic exercise improves global well being (SMD.49), function (SMD.66) and pain (SMD.65 but very wide CIs include 0). ■ Strength training may also be effective although far fewer studies have been performed. Cochrane Database: Fransen M, et. al. 2008, Issue 3. Bartels EM et. al, 2007, Issue 4. Busch et. al. 2007, Issue 3. ■

47. Neurostimulatory Therapies Peripheral ■ TENS ■ Conventional TENS (C-TENS) is given at high stimulation frequency with low intensity, and pain relief is almost immediate both short-lived. ■ Acupuncture like TENS (AL-TENS) is given at low frequency and high intensity (which is uncomfortable to many individuals), and generally has a longer lasting analgesic effect. ■ AL-TENS decreased pain and joint tenderness in RA ■ Leads to improvements in both pain and function in OA. Brosseau L et. al., 2003, Cochrane Database, Issue 3; Osiri M, et. al. 2000, Cochrane Database, Issue 4. ■ Central

48. Neurostimulatory Therapies Central - Being shown to be effective across a broad range of chronic pain conditions ■ Applied to scalp ■ Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) ■ Direct Current Stimulation (DCS) ■ Implantable ■ Spinal cord stimulation ■ Vagal nerve stimulation ■ Deep brain stimulation

49. Random Issues in FM ■ Vitamin D ■ Obesity ■ Small fiber neuropathy ■ Opioids

50. Summary ■ Most practitioners have historically considered chronic pain to be largely from peripheral nociceptive input (i.e. damage or inflammation) ■ When thinking about central factors in pain, many focus entirely on psychological factors ■ We now understand that non-psychological central nervous system factors can markedly increase (sensitization) or decrease pain sensitivity ■ The CNS is now thought of as “setting the volume control” or gain on pain processing and determining what nociception is felt as pain

51. Summary ■ The most highly prevalent pain conditions in younger individuals are now thought to be more “central” than “peripheral” ■ Centralized pain or central sensitization can also be identified in subsets of individuals with any nociceptive or neuropathic pain state ■ This is not currently appreciated in clinical practice so there is marked overuse of treatments for acute/nociceptive pain (opioids, injections, surgery) for treating centralized pain ■ It is also quite possible that the endogenous opioid system plays a role in causing centralized pain states (i.e. promote the progression from acute nociceptive to chronic centralized pain) which is even more problematic

52. Identifying and appropriately treating centralized pain is likely much more important You can ignore the tip of the iceberg – but ignore what is below the surface and you’re missing what is likely the most important CNS contribution to pain

53. Self-assessment questions The symptoms most commonly noted in centralized pain states are A. Multifocal pain B. Fatigue C. Memory problems D. Sleep problems E. All of the above Which class of drugs has not been shown to be effective in centralized pain states A. Tricyclics B. Serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhbitors C. Gabapentinoids D. Opioids