1. Solutions Chapter 13 Properties of Solutions John D. Bookstaver St. Charles Community College St. Peters, MO  2006, Prentice Hall, Inc. Chemistry, The Central Science, 10th edition Theodore L. Brown; H. Eugene LeMay, Jr.; and Bruce E. Bursten

2. Solutions Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more pure substances. In a solution, the solute is dispersed uniformly throughout the solvent.

3. Solutions The intermolecular forces between solute and solvent particles must be strong enough to compete with those between solute particles and those between solvent particles.

4. Solutions How Does a Solution Form? As a solution forms, the solvent pulls solute particles apart and surrounds, or solvates, them. Play animation

5. Solutions How Does a Solution Form If an ionic salt is soluble in water, it is because the ion- dipole interactions are strong enough to overcome the lattice energy of the salt crystal.

6. Solutions Energy Changes in Solution Simply put, three processes affect the energetics of the process:  Separation of solute particles  Separation of solvent particles  New interactions between solute and solvent

7. Solutions Energy Changes in Solution The enthalpy change of the overall process depends on  H for each of these steps.

8. Solutions Why Do Endothermic Processes Occur? Things do not tend to occur spontaneously (i.e., without outside intervention) unless the energy of the system is lowered.

9. Solutions Why Do Endothermic Processes Occur? Yet we know that in some processes, like the dissolution of NH 4 NO 3 in water, heat is absorbed, not released.

10. Solutions Enthalpy Is Only Part of the Picture The reason is that increasing the disorder or randomness (known as entropy) of a system tends to lower the energy of the system.

11. Solutions Enthalpy Is Only Part of the Picture So even though enthalpy may increase, the overall energy of the system can still decrease if the system becomes more disordered.

12. Solutions Answer: The entropy increases because each gas eventually becomes dispersed in twice the volume it originally occupied. SAMPLE EXERCISE 13.1 continued PRACTICE EXERCISE Does the entropy of the system increase or decrease when the stopcock is opened to allow mixing of the two gases in this apparatus?

13. Solutions Student, Beware! Just because a substance disappears when it comes in contact with a solvent, it doesn’t mean the substance dissolved.

14. Solutions Student, Beware! Dissolution is a physical change—you can get back the original solute by evaporating the solvent. If you can’t, the substance didn’t dissolve, it reacted.

15. Solutions Types of Solutions Saturated  Solvent holds as much solute as is possible at that temperature.  Dissolved solute is in dynamic equilibrium with solid solute particles.

16. Solutions Types of Solutions Unsaturated  Less than the maximum amount of solute for that temperature is dissolved in the solvent.

17. Solutions Types of Solutions Supersaturated  Solvent holds more solute than is normally possible at that temperature.  These solutions are unstable; crystallization can usually be stimulated by adding a “seed crystal” or scratching the side of the flask.

18. Solutions Factors Affecting Solubility Chemists use the axiom “like dissolves like”:  Polar substances tend to dissolve in polar solvents.  Nonpolar substances tend to dissolve in nonpolar solvents.

19. Solutions Factors Affecting Solubility The more similar the intermolecular attractions, the more likely one substance is to be soluble in another.

20. Solutions Factors Affecting Solubility Glucose (which has hydrogen bonding) is very soluble in water, while cyclohexane (which only has dispersion forces) is not.

21. Solutions Factors Affecting Solubility Vitamin A is soluble in nonpolar compounds (like fats). Vitamin C is soluble in water.

22. Solutions SAMPLE EXERCISE 13.2 Predicting Solubility Patterns Predict whether each of the following substances is more likely to dissolve in carbon tetrachloride (CCl 4 ) or in water: C 7 H 16, Na 2 SO 4, HCl, and I 2. Solve: C 7 H 16 is a hydrocarbon, so it is molecular and nonpolar. Na 2 SO 4, a compound containing a metal and nonmetals, is ionic; HCl, a diatomic molecule containing two nonmetals that differ in electronegativity, is polar; and I 2, a diatomic molecule with atoms of equal electronegativity, is nonpolar. We would therefore predict that C 7 H 16 and I 2 would be more soluble in the nonpolar CCl 4 than in polar H 2 O, whereas water would be the better solvent for Na 2 SO 4 and HCl.

23. Solutions Answer: C 5 H 12 < C 5 H 11 Cl < C 5 H 11 OH < C 5 H 10 (OH) 2 (in order of increasing polarity and hydrogen-bonding ability) SAMPLE EXERCISE 13.2 continued PRACTICE EXERCISE Arrange the following substances in order of increasing solubility in water:

24. Solutions Gases in Solution In general, the solubility of gases in water increases with increasing mass. Larger molecules have stronger dispersion forces.

25. Solutions Gases in Solution The solubility of liquids and solids does not change appreciably with pressure. The solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to its pressure.

26. Solutions Henry’s Law S g = kP g where S g is the solubility of the gas; k is the Henry’s law constant for that gas in that solvent; P g is the partial pressure of the gas above the liquid. play animation

27. Solutions SAMPLE EXERCISE 13.3 A Henry’s Law Calculation Calculate the concentration of CO 2 in a soft drink that is bottled with a partial pressure of CO 2 of 4.0 atm over the liquid at 25°C. The Henry’s law constant for CO 2 in water at this temperature is 3.1  10 –2 mol/L-atm. PRACTICE EXERCISE Calculate the concentration of CO 2 in a soft drink after the bottle is opened and equilibrates at 25°C under a CO 2 partial pressure of 3.0  10 –4 atm. Solution Analyze: We are given the partial pressure of CO 2, and the Henry’s law constant, k, and asked to calculate the concentration of CO 2 in the solution. Plan: With the information given, we can use Henry’s law, Equation 13.4, to calculate the solubility, Solve: Check: The units are correct for solubility, and the answer has two significant figures consistent with both the partial pressure of CO 2 and the value of Henry’s constant. 2

28. Solutions Temperature Generally, the solubility of solid solutes in liquid solvents increases with increasing temperature.

29. Solutions Temperature The opposite is true of gases:  Carbonated soft drinks are more “bubbly” if stored in the refrigerator.  Warm lakes have less O 2 dissolved in them than cool lakes.

30. Solutions Ways of Expressing Concentrations of Solutions

31. Solutions Mass Percentage Mass % of A = mass of A in solution total mass of solution  100

32. Solutions Parts per Million and Parts per Billion ppm = mass of A in solution total mass of solution  10 6 Parts per Million (ppm) Parts per Billion (ppb) ppb = mass of A in solution total mass of solution  10 9

33. Solutions SAMPLE EXERCISE 13.4 Calculation of Mass-Related Concentrations (a) A solution is made by dissolving 13.5 g of glucose (C 6 H 12 O 6 ) in 0.100 kg of water. What is the mass percentage of solute in this solution? (b) A 2.5-g sample of groundwater was found to contain 5.4  g of Zn 2+ What is the concentration of Zn 2+ in parts per million? PRACTICE EXERCISE (a) Calculate the mass percentage of NaCl in a solution containing 1.50 g of NaCl in 50.0 g of water. (b) A commercial bleaching solution contains 3.62 mass % sodium hypochlorite, NaOCl. What is the mass of NaOCl in a bottle containing 2500 g of bleaching solution? Answers: (a) 2.91%, (b) 90.5 g of NaOCl Solution (a)Analyze: We are given the number of grams of solute (13.5 g) and the number of grams of solvent (0.100 kg = 100 g). From this we must calculate the mass percentage of solute. Plan: We can calculate the mass percentage by using Equation 13.5. The mass of the solution is the sum of the mass of solute (glucose) and the mass of solvent (water). Solve: Comment: The mass percentage of water in this solution is (100 – 11.9)% = 88.1%. (b) Analyze: In this case we are given the number of micrograms of solute. Because 1  g is 1  10 –6 g, 5.4  g = 5.4  10 –6 g. Plan: We calculate the parts per million using Equation 13.6. Solve:

34. Solutions moles of A total moles in solution X A = Mole Fraction (X) In some applications, one needs the mole fraction of solvent, not solute— make sure you find the quantity you need!

35. Solutions mol of solute L of solution M = Molarity (M) You will recall this concentration measure from Chapter 4. Because volume is temperature dependent, molarity can change with temperature.

36. Solutions mol of solute kg of solvent m = Molality (m) Because both moles and mass do not change with temperature, molality (unlike molarity) is not temperature dependent.

37. Solutions SAMPLE EXERCISE 13.5 Calculation of Molality A solution is made by dissolving 4.35 g glucose (C 6 H 12 O 6 ) in 25.0 mL of water at 25°C. Calculate the molality of glucose in the solution. PRACTICE EXERCISE What is the molality of a solution made by dissolving 36.5 g of naphthalene (C 10 H 8 ) in 425 g of toluene (C 7 H 8 )? Answer: 0.670 m Solution Analyze: We are asked to calculate a molality. To do this, we must determine the number of moles of solute (glucose) and the number of kilograms of solvent (water). Plan: We use the molar mass of C 6 H 12 O 6 to convert grams to moles. We use the density of water to convert milliliters to kilograms. The molality equals the number of moles of solute divided by the number of kilograms of solvent (Equation 13.9). Solve: Use the molar mass of glucose, 180.2 g/mol, to convert grams to moles: Because water has a density of 100 g/mL, the mass of the solvent is Finally, use Equation 13.9 to obtain the molality:

38. Solutions SAMPLE EXERCISE 13.6 Calculation of Mole Fraction and Molality An aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid contains 36% HCl by mass. (a) Calculate the mole fraction of HCl in the solution. (b) Calculate the molality of HCl in the solution. Solution Analyze: We are asked to calculate the concentration of the solute, HCl, in two related concentration units, given only the percentage by mass of the solute in the solution. Plan: In converting concentration units based on the mass or moles of solute and solvent (mass percentage, mole fraction, and molality), it is useful to assume a certain total mass of solution. Let’s assume that there is exactly 100 g of solution. Because the solution is 36% HCl, it contains 36 g of HCl and (100 – 36) g = 64 g of H 2 O. We must convert grams of solute (HCl) to moles in order to calculate either mole fraction or molality. We must convert grams of solvent H 2 O to moles to calculate mole fractions, and to kilograms to calculate molality. Solve: (a) To calculate the mole fraction of HCl, we convert the masses of HCl and H 2 O to moles and then use Equation 13.7:

39. Solutions PRACTICE EXERCISE A commercial bleach solution contains 3.62 mass % NaOCl in water. Calculate (a) the molality and (b) the mole fraction of NaOCl in the solution. Answers: (a) 0.505 m, (b) 9.00  10 –3 SAMPLE EXERCISE 13.6 continued (b) To calculate the molality of HCl in the solution, we use Equation 13.9. We calculated the number of moles of HCl in part (a), and the mass of solvent is 64 g = 0.064 kg:

40. Solutions SAMPLE EXERCISE 13.7 Calculation of Molarity A solution contains 5.0 g of toluene (C 7 H 8 ) and 225 g of benzene and has a density of 0.876 g/mL. Calculate the molarity of the solution. Solution Analyze: Our goal is to calculate the molarity of a solution, given the masses of solute and solvent and the density of the solution. Plan: The molarity of a solution is the number of moles of solute divided by the number of liters of solution (Equation 13.8). The number of moles of solute (C 7 H 8 ) is calculated from the number of grams of solute and its molar mass. The volume of the solution is obtained from the mass of the solution (mass of solute + mass of solvent = 5.0 g + 225 g = 230 g) and its density. Solve: The number of moles of solute is The density of the solution is used to convert the mass of the solution to its volume: Molarity is moles of solute per liter of solution:

41. Solutions PRACTICE EXERCISE A solution containing equal masses of glycerol (C 3 H 8 O 3 ) and water has a density of 1.10 g/mL. Calculate (a) the molality of glycerol, (b) the mole fraction of glycerol, (c) the molarity of glycerol in the solution. SAMPLE EXERCISE 13.7 continued Check: The magnitude of our answer is reasonable. Rounding moles to 0.05 and liters to 0.25 gives a molarity of The units for our answer (mol/L) are correct, and the answer, 0.21 M, has two significant figures, corresponding to the number of significant figures in the mass of solute (2). Comment: Because the mass of the solvent (0.225 kg) and the volume of the solution (0.263 L) are similar in magnitude, the molarity and molality are also similar in magnitude:

42. Solutions Changing Molarity to Molality If we know the density of the solution, we can calculate the molality from the molarity, and vice versa.

43. Solutions Colligative Properties Changes in colligative properties depend only on the number of solute particles present, not on the identity of the solute particles. Among colligative properties are  Vapor pressure lowering  Boiling point elevation  Melting point depression  Osmotic pressure

44. Solutions Vapor Pressure Because of solute- solvent intermolecular attraction, higher concentrations of nonvolatile solutes make it harder for solvent to escape to the vapor phase.

45. Solutions Vapor Pressure Therefore, the vapor pressure of a solution is lower than that of the pure solvent.

46. Solutions Raoult’s Law P A = X A P  A where X A is the mole fraction of compound A P  A is the normal vapor pressure of A at that temperature NOTE: This is one of those times when you want to make sure you have the vapor pressure of the solvent.

47. Solutions SAMPLE EXERCISE 13.8 Calculation of Vapor-Pressure Lowering Glycerin (C 3 H 8 O 3 ) is a nonvolatile nonelectrolyte with a density of 1.26 g/mL at 25°C. Calculate the vapor pressure at 25°C of a solution made by adding 50.0 mL of glycerin to 500.0 mL of water. The vapor pressure of pure water at 25°C is 23.8 torr (Appendix B). Solution Analyze: Our goal is to calculate the vapor pressure of a solution, given the volumes of solute and solvent and the density of the solute. Plan: We can use Raoult’s law (Equation 13.10) to calculate the vapor pressure of a solution. The mole fraction of the solvent in the solution, X A, is the ratio of the number of moles of solvent (H 2 O) to total solution (moles C 3 H 8 O 3 + moles H 2 O). Solve: To calculate the mole fraction of water in the solution, we must determine the number of moles of C 3 H 8 O 3 and H 2 O:

48. Solutions PRACTICE EXERCISE The vapor pressure of pure water at 110°C is 1070 torr. A solution of ethylene glycol and water has a vapor pressure of 1.00 atm at 110°C. Assuming that Raoult’s law is obeyed, what is the mole fraction of ethylene glycol in the solution? Answer: 0.290 SAMPLE EXERCISE 13.8 continued The vapor pressure of the solution has been lowered by 0.6 torr relative to that of pure water. We now use Raoult’s law to calculate the vapor pressure of water for the solution:

49. Solutions Boiling Point Elevation and Freezing Point Depression Nonvolatile solute- solvent interactions also cause solutions to have higher boiling points and lower freezing points than the pure solvent.

50. Solutions Boiling Point Elevation The change in boiling point is proportional to the molality of the solution:  T b = K b  m where K b is the molal boiling point elevation constant, a property of the solvent.  T b is added to the normal boiling point of the solvent.

51. Solutions Freezing Point Depression The change in freezing point can be found similarly:  T f = K f  m Here K f is the molal freezing point depression constant of the solvent.  T f is subtracted from the normal freezing point of the solvent.

52. Solutions Boiling Point Elevation and Freezing Point Depression Note that in both equations,  T does not depend on what the solute is, but only on how many particles are dissolved.  T b = K b  m  T f = K f  m

53. Solutions SAMPLE EXERCISE 13.9 Calculation of Boiling-Point Elevation and Freezing-Point Lowering Automotive antifreeze consists of ethylene glycol (C 2 H 6 O 2 ), a nonvolatile nonelectrolyte. Calculate the boiling point and freezing point of a 25.0 mass % solution of ethylene glycol in water. Solution Analyze: We are given that a solution contains 25.0 mass % of a nonvolatile, nonelectrolyte solute and asked to calculate the boiling and freezing points of the solution. To do this, we need to calculate the boiling-point elevation and freezing-point depression. Plan: In order to calculate the boiling-point elevation and the freezing-point depression using Equations 13.11 and 13.12, we must express the concentration of the solution as molality. Let’s assume for convenience that we have 1000 g of solution. Because the solution is 25.0 mass % ethylene glycol, the masses of ethylene glycol and water in the solution are 250 and 750 g, respectively. Using these quantities, we can calculate the molality of the solution, which we use with the molal boiling-point-elevation and freezing-point-depression constants (Table 13.4) to calculate  T b and  T f. We add  T b to the boiling point and subtract  T f from the freezing point of the solvent to obtain the boiling point and freezing point of the solution. We can now use Equations 13.11 and 13.12 to calculate the changes in the boiling and freezing points: Solve: The molality of the solution is calculated as follows:

54. Solutions Comment: Notice that the solution is a liquid over a larger temperature range than the pure solvent. PRACTICE EXERCISE Calculate the freezing point of a solution containing 0.600 kg of CHCl 3 and 42.0 g of eucalyptol (C 10 H 18 O), a fragrant substance found in the leaves of eucalyptus trees. (See Table 13.4.) Answer: –65.6ºC SAMPLE EXERCISE 13.9 continued Hence, the boiling and freezing points of the solution are

55. Solutions Colligative Properties of Electrolytes Since these properties depend on the number of particles dissolved, solutions of electrolytes (which dissociate in solution) should show greater changes than those of nonelectrolytes.

56. Solutions Colligative Properties of Electrolytes However, a 1 M solution of NaCl does not show twice the change in freezing point that a 1 M solution of methanol does.

57. Solutions van’t Hoff Factor One mole of NaCl in water does not really give rise to two moles of ions.

58. Solutions van’t Hoff Factor Some Na + and Cl − reassociate for a short time, so the true concentration of particles is somewhat less than two times the concentration of NaCl.

59. Solutions The van’t Hoff Factor Reassociation is more likely at higher concentration. Therefore, the number of particles present is concentration dependent.

60. Solutions The van’t Hoff Factor We modify the previous equations by multiplying by the van’t Hoff factor, i  T f = K f  m  i

61. Solutions Osmosis Some substances form semipermeable membranes, allowing some smaller particles to pass through, but blocking other larger particles. In biological systems, most semipermeable membranes allow water to pass through, but solutes are not free to do so.

62. Solutions Osmosis In osmosis, there is net movement of solvent from the area of higher solvent concentration (lower solute concentration) to the are of lower solvent concentration (higher solute concentration).

63. Solutions Osmotic Pressure The pressure required to stop osmosis, known as osmotic pressure, , is nVnV  = ( ) RT = MRT where M is the molarity of the solution If the osmotic pressure is the same on both sides of a membrane (i.e., the concentrations are the same), the solutions are isotonic. play animation

64. Solutions Osmosis in Blood Cells If the solute concentration outside the cell is greater than that inside the cell, the solution is hypertonic. Water will flow out of the cell, and crenation results.

65. Solutions Osmosis in Cells If the solute concentration outside the cell is less than that inside the cell, the solution is hypotonic. Water will flow into the cell, and hemolysis results.

66. Solutions SAMPLE EXERCISE 13.11 Calculations Involving Osmotic Pressure The average osmotic pressure of blood is 7.7 atm at 25°C. What concentration of glucose (C 6 H 12 O 6 ) will be isotonic with blood? Comment: In clinical situations the concentrations of solutions are generally expressed as mass percentages. The mass percentage of a 0.31 M solution of glucose is 5.3%. The concentration of NaCl that is isotonic with blood is 0.16 M because NaCl ionizes to form two particles, Na + and Cl – (a 0.155 M solution of NaCl is 0.310 M in particles). A 0.16 M solution of NaCl is 0.9 mass % in NaCl. This kind of solution is known as a physiological saline solution. PRACTICE EXERCISE What is the osmotic pressure at 20°C of a 0.0020 M sucrose (C 12 H 22 O 11 ) solution? Answer: 0.048 atm, or 37 torr Solution Analyze: We are asked to calculate the concentration of glucose in water that would be isotonic with blood, given that the osmotic pressure of blood at 25°C is 7.7 atm. Plan: Because we are given the osmotic pressure and temperature, we can solve for the concentration, using Equation 13.13. Solve:

67. Solutions Molar Mass from Colligative Properties We can use the effects of a colligative property such as osmotic pressure to determine the molar mass of a compound.

68. Solutions SAMPLE EXERCISE 13.10 Freezing-Point Depression in Aqueous Solutions List the following aqueous solutions in order of their expected freezing point: 0.050 m CaCl 2, 0.15 m NaCl, 0.10 m HCl, 0.050 m HC 2 H 3 O 2, 0.10 m C 12 H 22 O 11. Solution Analyze: We must order five aqueous solutions according to expected freezing points, based on molalities and the solute formulas. Plan: The lowest freezing point will correspond to the solution with the greatest concentration of solute particles. To determine the total concentration of solute particles in each case, we must determine whether the substance is a nonelectrolyte or an electrolyte and consider the number of ions formed when it ionizes. Solve: CaCl 2, NaCl, and HCl are strong electrolytes, HC 2 H 3 O 2, is a weak electrolyte, and C 12 H 22 O 11 is a nonelectrolyte. The molality of each solution in total particles is as follows: Because the freezing points depend on the total molality of particles in solution, the expected ordering is 0.15 m NaCl (lowest freezing point), 0.10 m HCl, 0.050 m CaCl 2, 0.10 m C 12 H 22 O 11, and 0.050 m HC 2 H 3 O 2, (highest freezing point).

69. Solutions SAMPLE EXERCISE 13.10 continued PRACTICE EXERCISE Which of the following solutes will produce the largest increase in boiling point upon addition to 1 kg of water: 1 mol of Co(NO 3 ) 2, 2 mol of KCl, 3 mol of ethylene glycol (C 2 H 6 O 2 )? Answer: 2 mol of KCl because it contains the highest concentration of particles, 2 m K + and 2 m Cl –, giving 4 m in all

70. Solutions SAMPLE EXERCISE 13.12 Molar Mass from Freezing-Point Depression A solution of an unknown nonvolatile electrolyte was prepared by dissolving 0.250 g of the substance in 40.0 g of CCl 4. The boiling point of the resultant solution was 0.357°C higher than that of the pure solvent. Calculate the molar mass of the solute. Solution Analyze: Our goal is to calculate the molar mass of a solute based on knowledge of the boiling-point elevation of its solution in CCl 4,  T b = 0.357ºC, and the masses of solute and solvent. Table 13.4 gives K b for the solvent (CCl 4 ), K b = 5.02ºC/m. Plan: We can use Equation 13.11,  T b = K b m, to calculate the molality of the solution. Then we can use molality and the quantity of solvent (40.0 g CCl 4 ) to calculate the number of moles of solute. Finally, the molar mass of the solute equals the number of grams per mole, so we divide the number of grams of solute (0.250 g) by the number of moles we have just calculated. Solve: From Equation 13.11 we have Thus, the solution contains 0.0711 mol of solute per kilogram of solvent. The solution was prepared using 40.0 g = 0.0400 kg of solvent (CCl 4 ). The number of moles of solute in the solution is therefore

71. Solutions PRACTICE EXERCISE Camphor (C 10 H 16 O) melts at 179.8°C, and it has a particularly large freezing-point-depression constant, K f = 40.0ºC/m. When 0.186 g of an organic substance of unknown molar mass is dissolved in 22.01 g of liquid camphor, the freezing point of the mixture is found to be 176.7°C. What is the molar mass of the solute? Answer: 110 g/mol SAMPLE EXERCISE 13.12 continued The molar mass of the solute is the number of grams per mole of the substance:

72. Solutions SAMPLE EXERCISE 13.13 Molar Mass from Osmotic Pressure The osmotic pressure of an aqueous solution of a certain protein was measured in order to determine the protein’s molar mass. The solution contained 3.50 mg of protein dissolved in sufficient water to form 5.00 mL of solution. The osmotic pressure of the solution at 25°C was found to be 1.54 torr. Calculate the molar mass of the protein. Solution Analyze: Our goal is to calculate the molar mass of a high-molecular-mass protein, based on its osmotic pressure and a knowledge of the mass of protein and solution volume. Plan: The temperature (T = 25ºC) and osmotic pressure (  = 1.54 torr) are given, and we know the value of R so we can use Equation 13.13 to calculate the molarity of the solution, M. In doing so, we must convert temperature from °C to K and the osmotic pressure from torr to atm. We then use the molarity and the volume of the solution (5.00 mL) to determine the number of moles of solute. Finally, we obtain the molar mass by dividing the mass of the solute (3.50 mg) by the number of moles of solute. Solve: Solving Equation 13.13 for molarity gives Because the volume of the solution is 5.00 ml = 5.00  10 –3 L, the number of moles of protein must be

73. Solutions Comment: Because small pressures can be measured easily and accurately, osmotic pressure measurements provide a useful way to determine the molar masses of large molecules. PRACTICE EXERCISE A sample of 2.05 g of polystyrene of uniform polymer chain length was dissolved in enough toluene to form 0.100 L of solution. The osmotic pressure of this solution was found to be 1.21 kPa at 25°C. Calculate the molar mass of the polystyrene. Answer: 4.20  10 4 g/mol SAMPLE EXERCISE 13.13 continued The molar mass is the number of grams per mole of the substance. The sample has a mass of 3.50 mg = 3.50  10 –3 g. The molar mass is the number of grams divided by the number of moles:

74. Solutions Colloids: Suspensions of particles larger than individual ions or molecules, but too small to be settled out by gravity.

75. Solutions Tyndall Effect Colloidal suspensions can scatter rays of light. This phenomenon is known as the Tyndall effect.

76. Solutions Colloids in Biological Systems Some molecules have a polar, hydrophilic (water-loving) end and a nonpolar, hydrophobic (water- hating) end.

77. Solutions Colloids in Biological Systems Sodium stearate is one example of such a molecule.

78. Solutions Colloids in Biological Systems These molecules can aid in the emulsification of fats and oils in aqueous solutions.

79. Solutions SAMPLE INTEGRATIVE EXERCISE Putting Concepts Together A 0.100-L solution is made by dissolving 0.441 g of CaCl 2 (s) in water. (a) Calculate the osmotic pressure of this solution at 27°C, assuming that it is completely dissociated into its component ions. (b) The measured osmotic pressure of this solution is 2.56 atm at 27°C. Explain why it is less than the value calculated in (a), and calculate the van’t Hoff factor, i, for the solute in this solution. (See the “Closer Look” box in Section 13.5 on page 557.) (c) The enthalpy of solution for CaCl 2 is  H = –81.3 kJ/mol. If the final temperature of the solution was 27.0°C, what was its initial temperature? (Assume that the density of the solution is 1.00 g /mL, that its specific heat is 4.18 J/g-K, and that the solution loses no heat to its surroundings.) Solution (a) The osmotic pressure is given by Equation 13.13, π = MRT. We know the temperature, T = 27ºC = 300 K and the gas constant, R = 0.0821 L-atm/mol-K. We can calculate the molarity of the solution from the mass of CaCl 2 and the volume of the solution: Soluble ionic compounds are strong electrolytes. (Sections 4.1 and 4.3) Thus, CaCl 2 consists of metal cations (Ca 2+ ) and nonmetal anions (Cl – ). When completely dissociated, each CaCl 2 unit forms three ions (one (Ca 2+ ) and two Cl – ). Hence the total concentration of ions in the solution is (3)(0.0397 M) = 0.119 M, and the osmotic pressure is

80. Solutions A kelvin has the same size as a degree Celsius. (Section 1.4) Because the solution temperature increases by 0.773°C, the initial temperature was 27.0ºC – 0.773ºC = 26.2°C. The heat absorbed by the solution is q = +0.323 kJ = 323 J. The mass of the 0.100 L of solution is (100 mL)(1.00 g/mL) = 100 g (to 3 significant figures). Thus the temperature change is Thus, the solution behaves as if the CaCl 2 has dissociated into 2.62 particles instead of the ideal 3. (c) If the solution is 0.0397 M in CaCl 2 and has a total volume of 0.100 L, the number of moles of solute is (0.100 L)(0.0397 mol/L) = 0.00397 mol. Hence the quantity of heat generated in forming the solution is (0.00397 mol)(–81.3 kJ/mol) = –0.323 kJ. The solution absorbs this heat, causing its temperature to increase. The relationship between temperature change and heat is given by Equation 5.19: SAMPLE INTEGRATIVE EXERCISE continued (b) The actual values of colligative properties of electrolytes are less than those calculated, because the electrostatic interactions between ions limit their independent movements. In this case the van’t Hoff factor, which measures the extent to which electrolytes actually dissociate into ions, is given by

81. Solutions Table 13.4 BACK