1. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 1 Computer Structure Advanced Topics Lihu Rappoport and Adi Yoaz

2. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 2 Hyper Threading Technology

3. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 3 Thread-Level Parallelism  Multiprocessor systems have been used for many years –There are known techniques to exploit multiprocessors  Software trends –Applications consist of multiple threads or processes that can be executed in parallel on multiple processors  Thread-level parallelism (TLP) – threads can be from –the same application –different applications running simultaneously –operating system services  Increasing single thread performance becomes harder –and is less and less power efficient  Chip Multi-Processing (CMP) –Two (or more) processors are put on a single die

4. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 4 Multi-Threading  Multi-threading: a single processor executes multiple threads  Time-slice multithreading –The processor switches between software threads after a fixed period –Can effectively minimize the effects of long latencies to memory  Switch-on-event multithreading –Switch threads on long latency events such as cache misses –Works well for server applications that have many cache misses  A deficiency of both time-slice MT and switch-on-event MT –They do not cover for branch mis-predictions and long dependencies  Simultaneous multi-threading (SMT) –Multiple threads execute on a single processor simultaneously w/o switching –Makes the most effective use of processor resources  Maximizes performance vs. transistor count and power

5. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 5 Hyper-threading (HT) Technology  HT is SMT –Makes a single processor appear as 2 logical processors = threads  Each thread keeps a its own architectural state –General-purpose registers –Control and machine state registers  Each thread has its own interrupt controller –Interrupts sent to a specific logical processor are handled only by it  OS views logical processors similar to physical processors –But can still differentiate and prefer to schedule a thread on a new physical processor rather than on a 2 nd logical processors in the same phy processor  From a micro-architecture perspective –Thread share a single set of physical resources  caches, execution units, branch predictors, control logic, and buses

6. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 6 Two Important Goals  When one thread is stalled the other thread can continue to make progress –Independent progress ensured by either  Partitioning buffering queues and limiting the number of entries each thread can use  Duplicating buffering queues  A single active thread running on a processor with HT runs at the same speed as without HT –Partitioned resources are recombined when only one thread is active

7. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 7 Front End  Each thread manages its own next-instruction-pointer  Threads arbitrate Uop cache access every cycle (Ping-Pong) –If both want to access the UC – access granted in alternating cycles –If one thread is stalled, the other thread gets the full UC bandwidth  Uop Cacahe entries are tagged with thread-ID –Dynamically allocated as needed –Allows one logical processor to have more entries than the other Uop Cache

8. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 8 Front End (cont.)  Branch prediction structures are either duplicated or shared –The return stack buffer is duplicated –Global history is tracked for each thread –The large global history array is a shared  Entries are tagged with a logical processor ID  Each thread has its own ITLB  Both threads share the same decoder logic –if only one needs the decode logic, it gets the full decode bandwidth –The state needed by the decodes is duplicated  Uop queue is hard partitioned –Allows both logical processors to make independent forward progress regardless of FE stalls (e.g., TC miss) or EXE stalls

9. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 9 Out-of-order Execution  ROB and MOB are hard partitioned –Enforce fairness and prevent deadlocks  Allocator ping-pongs between the thread –A thread is selected for allocation if  Its uop-queue is not empty  its buffers (ROB, RS) are not full  It is the thread’s turn, or the other thread cannot be selected

10. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 10 Out-of-order Execution (cont)  Registers renamed to a shared physical register pool –Store results until retirement  After allocation and renaming uops are placed in one of 2 Qs –Memory instruction queue and general instruction queue  The two queues are hard partitioned –Uops are read from the Q’s and sent to the scheduler using ping-pong  The schedulers are oblivious to threads –Schedule uops based on dependencies and exe. resources availability  Regardless of their thread –Uops from the two threads can be dispatched in the same cycle –To avoid deadlock and ensure fairness  Limit the number of active entries a thread can have in each scheduler’s queue  Forwarding logic compares physical register numbers –Forward results to other uops without thread knowledge

11. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 11 Out-of-order Execution (cont)  Memory is largely oblivious –L1 Data Cache, L2 Cache, L3 Cache are thread oblivious  All use physical addresses –DTLB is shared  Each DTLB entry includes a thread ID as part of the tag  Retirement ping-pongs between threads –If one thread is not ready to retire uops all retirement bandwidth is dedicated to the other thread

12. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 12 Single-task And Multi-task Modes  MT-mode (Multi-task mode) –Two active threads, with some resources partitioned as described earlier  ST-mode (Single-task mode) –There are two flavors of ST-mode  single-task thread 0 (ST0) – only thread 0 is active  single-task thread 1 (ST1) – only thread 1 is active –Resources that were partitioned in MT-mode are re-combined to give the single active logical processor use of all of the resources  Moving the processor from between modes ST0 ST1 MT Thread 1 executes HALT Low Power Thread 1 executes HALT Thread 0 executes HALT Interrupt

13. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 13 Operating System And Applications  An HT processor appears to the OS and application SW as 2 processors –The OS manages logical processors as it does physical processors The OS should implement two optimizations:  Use HALT if only one logical processor is active –Allows the processor to transition to either the ST0 or ST1 mode –Otherwise the OS would execute on the idle logical processor a sequence of instructions that repeatedly checks for work to do –This so-called “idle loop” can consume significant execution resources that could otherwise be used by the other active logical processor  On a multi-processor system, –Schedule threads to logical processors on different physical processors before scheduling multiple threads to the same physical processor –Allows SW threads to use different physical resources when possible

14. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 14 2 nd Generation Intel ® Core TM Sandy Bridge

15. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 15 3 rd Generation Intel Core TM Processors  22nm process  Quad core die, with Intel HD Graphics 4000  1.4 Billion transistors  Die size: 160 mm 2

16. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 16 Sandy Bridge Processor Core Overview Build upon Nehalem microarchitecture processor core – Converged building block for mobile, desktop, and server Add “Cool” microarchitecture enhancements –Features that are better than linear performance/power Add “Really Cool” microarchitecture enhancements – Features which gain performance while saving power Extend the architecture for important new applications –Floating Point and Throughput  Intel ® Advanced Vector Extensions (Intel ® AVX) – significant boost for selected compute intensive applications –Security  AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) throughput enhancements  Large Integer RSA speedups –OS/VMM and server related features  State save/restore optimizations Foil taken from IDF 2011

17. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 17 ALU, SIMUL, DIV, FP MUL ALU, SIMUL, DIV, FP MUL ALU, SIALU, FP ADD ALU, SIALU, FP ADD ALU, Branch, FP Shuffle ALU, Branch, FP Shuffle Load Store Address Store Data Store Data Six Execution Ports 32k L1 Instruction Cache Scheduler Port 0 Port 1 Port 5 Port 2 Port 3 Port 4 32k L1 Data Cache 48 bytes/cycle Allocate/Rename/Retire Zeroing Idioms Load Buffe rs Store Buffe rs Reord erBuff ers L2 Cache (MLC) Fill Buffers Pre decode Instruction Queue Instruction Queue Decoders 1.5k uOP cache Decoders Branch Pred In order Out-of- order Front End (IA instructions  Uops) In Order Allocation, Rename, Retirement Out of Order “Uop” Scheduling DataCacheUnit Core Block Diagram Foil taken from IDF 2011

18. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 18 Front End Instruction Fetch and Decode 32KB 8-way Associative ICache 4 Decoders, up to 4 instructions / cycle Micro-Fusion –Bundle multiple instruction events into a single “Uops” Macro-Fusion –Fuse instruction pairs into a complex “Uop” Decode Pipeline supports 16 bytes per cycle 32KB L1 I-Cache Pre decode Instruction Queue Instruction Queue Decoders Branch Prediction Unit Foil taken from IDF 2011

19. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 19 Branch Prediction Unit New Branch Predictor Twice as many targets Much more effective storage for history Much longer history for data dependent behaviors Branch Prediction Unit 32KB L1 I-Cache Pre decode Instruction Queue Instruction Queue Decoders Foil taken from IDF 2011

20. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 20 Decoded Uop Cache ~1.5 Kuops Decoded Uop Cache Instruction Cache for Uops instead of Instruction Bytes –~80% hit rate for most applications Higher Instruction Bandwidth and Lower Latency –Decoded Uop Cache can represent 32-byte / cycle  More Cycles sustaining 4 instruction/cycle –Able to ‘stitch’ across taken branches in the control flow Branch Prediction Unit 32KB L1 I-Cache Pre decode Instruction Queue Instruction Queue Decoders Foil taken from IDF 2011

21. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 21 Decoded Uop Cache lets the normal front end sleep –Decode one time instead of many times Branch-Mispredictions reduced substantially –The correct path is also the most efficient path Save Power while Increasing Performance Decoded Uop Cache Branch Prediction Unit 32k L1 Instruction Cache Pre decode Instruction Queue Instruction Queue Decoders Decoded Uop Cache ~1.5 Kuops Zzzz Foil taken from IDF 2011

22. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 22 Instruction Decode  Four decoding units decode instruction into μops –The first can decode all instructions up to four μops in size –The remaining 3 decoders handle common single μop instructions  μops emitted by the decoders are directed to the μop queue and to the Decoded uop cache  Instructions with >4 μops generate their μops from the MSROM –The MSROM bandwidth is four μops per cycle –Instructions whose μops come from the MSROM can start from either the legacy decode pipeline or from the Decoded uop-cache From the Optimization Manual

23. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 23 Micro Fusion  Fuse multiple μops from same instruction into a single μop –The micro-fused μop is dispatched multiple times in the OOO  As it would if it were not micro-fused –Instruction which decode into a single micro-fused μop can be handled by all decoders –Improves instruction bandwidth delivered from decode to retirement and saves power  Micro-fused instructions –All stores to memory, including store immediate  Execute internally as two μop: store-address and store-data –Load + op instruction  e.g., FADD DOUBLE PTR [RDI+RSI*8] –Load and jump  e.g., JMP [RDI+200] From the Optimization Manual

24. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 24 Macro-Fusion  Merge two instructions into a single μop –A macro-fused instruction executes with a single dispatch  Reduces latency and frees execution resources –Increased decode, rename and retire bandwidth –Power savings from representing more work in fewer bits  The first instruction of a macro-fused pair modifies flags –CMP, TEST, ADD, SUB, AND, INC, DEC  The 2 nd inst. of a macro-fusible pair is a conditional branch –For each first instruction, some branches can fuse with it  These pairs are common in many types of applications From the Optimization Manual

25. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 25 Decoded Uop-Cache  The UC is an accelerator of the legacy decode pipeline –Caches the μops coming out of the instruction decoder –Next time μops are taken from the UC –The UC can ideally hold up to 1536 μops  32 sets, 8 ways per set, up to 6 μops per way –Average hit rate of 80% of the μops  Skips fetch and decode for the cached μops –Reduces latency on branch mispredictions –Increases μop delivery bandwidth to the OOO engine –Reduces front end power consumption  In each cycle provide uops for instructions mapped to 32 bytes –Keeps the front ahead of the back end also for  Fills the large scheduler window, to find instruction level parallelism  The UC is virtually included in the IC and in the ITLB –Flushed on a context switch From the Optimization Manual

26. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 26 Loop Stream Detector (LSD)  LSD detects small loops that fit in the μop queue –The loop streams from the μop queue, with no more fetching, decoding, or reading μops from any of the caches –until a branch miss-prediction inevitably ends it  The loops with the following attributes qualify for LSD replay –Up to eight chunk fetches of 32-instruction-bytes –Up to 28 μops (~28 instructions) –All μops are also resident in the UC –No more than eight taken branches –No CALL or RET –No mismatched stack operations (e.g., more PUSH than POP)  Many calculation-intensive loops, searches and software string moves match these characteristics –For high performance code, loop unrolling is generally preferable for performance even when it overflows the LSD capability From the Optimization Manual

27. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 27 Scheduler Port 0 Port 1 Port 5 Port 2 Port 3 Port 4 Allocate/Rename/Retire Zeroing Idioms Load Buffe rs Store Buffe rs Reord erBuff ers In order Out-of-order In Order Allocation, Rename, Retirement Out of Order “Uop” Scheduling “Out of Order” Part of the machine Receives Uops from the Front End Sends them to Execution Units when they are ready Retires them in Program Order Increase Performance by finding more Instruction Level Parallelism –Increasing Depth and Width of machine implies larger buffers  More Data Storage, More Data Movement, More Power Foil taken from IDF 2011

28. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 28 Sandy Bridge Out-of-Order Cluster Method: Physical Reg File (PRF) instead of centralized Retirement Register File –Single copy of every data –No movement after calculation Allows significant increase in buffer sizes –Dataflow window ~33% larger Scheduler Allocate/Rename/Retire Zeroing Idioms Load Buffers Store Buffers Reorder Buffers In order Out-of- order FP/INT Vector PRFInt PRF PRF has better than linear performance/power Key enabler for Intel ® AVX PRF has better than linear performance/power Key enabler for Intel ® AVX Foil taken from IDF 2011

29. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 29 Double the FLOPs in a “Cool” Manner Intel ® Advanced Vector Extensions (Intel ® AVX) –Vectors are a natural data-type for many applications –Extend SSE FP instruction set to 256 bits operand size –Extend all 16 XMM registers to 256bits New, non-destructive source syntax –VADDPS ymm1, ymm2, ymm3 New Operations to enhance vectorization –Broadcasts, masked load & store YMM0 – 256 bits (AVX) XMM0 – 128 bits Foil taken from IDF 2011 Wide vectors+ non-destructive source: more work with fewer instructions Extending the existing state is area and power efficient Wide vectors+ non-destructive source: more work with fewer instructions Extending the existing state is area and power efficient

30. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 30 Execution Cluster 3 Execution Ports Max throughput of 8 floating point operations per cycle –Port 0 : packed SP multiply –Port 1 : packed SP add Scheduler Port 0 Port 1 Port 5 ALU JMP FP Shuf FP Bool VI ADD VI MUL VI Shuffle DIV VI Shuffle FP ADD Blend FP MUL Foil taken from IDF 2011

31. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 31 Execution Cluster Scheduler sees matrix: 3 “ports” to 3 “stacks” of execution units General Purpose Integer –SIMD (Vector) Integer –SIMD Floating Point Challenge: double the output of one of these stacks in a manner that is invisible to the others Port 0 Port 1 Port 5 GPR SIMD INT SIMD FP ALU JMP FP Shuf FP Bool VI ADD VI MUL VI Shuffle DIV VI Shuffle FP ADD Blend FP MUL Foil taken from IDF 2011

32. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 32 Execution Cluster Solution: Repurpose existing data paths to dual-use SIMD integer and legacy SIMD FP use legacy stack style Intel ® AVX utilizes both 128-bit execution stacks Double FLOPs –256-bit Multiply + 256-bit ADD + 256-bit Load per clock Port 0 Port 1 Port 5 GPR SIMD INT SIMD FP ALU JMP FP Shuf FP Bool VI ADD VI MUL VI Shuffle DIV VI Shuffle FP ADD Blend FP MUL FP ADD FP Multiply FP Blend FP Shuffle FP Boolean FP Blend Foil taken from IDF 2011 “Cool” Implementation of Intel AVX 256-bit Multiply + 256-bit ADD + 256-bit Load per clock… Double your FLOPs with great energy efficiency “Cool” Implementation of Intel AVX 256-bit Multiply + 256-bit ADD + 256-bit Load per clock… Double your FLOPs with great energy efficiency

33. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 33 The Renamer  Moves ≤4μops / cycle from the μop queue to the OOO engine –Renames architectural sources and destinations of the μops to micro-architectural sources and destinations –Allocates resources to the μops, e.g., load or store buffers –Binds the μop to an appropriate dispatch port  Some μops can execute to completion during rename, effectively costing no execution bandwidth –Zero idioms (dependency breaking idioms) –NOP –VZEROUPPER –FXCHG –Ivy Bridge: A subset of register-to-register MOV  The renamer can allocate two branches each cycle From the Optimization Manual

34. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 34 Dependency Breaking Idioms  Instruction parallelism can be improved by zeroing register content  Zero idiom Examples –XOR REG,REG –SUB REG,REG  Zero idioms are detected and removed by the renamer –Have zero execution latency –They do not consume any execution resource  There is another dependency breaking idiom – the "ones idiom" –CMPEQ XMM1, XMM1; "ones idiom" set all elements to all "ones"  Regardless of the input data the output data is always "all ones"  No μop dependency on its sources, as with the zero idiom  Can execute as soon as it finds a free execution port –As opposed to 0-idiom, the "ones idiom“ μop must execute From the Optimization Manual

35. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 35 Memory Cluster Memory Unit can service two memory requests per cycle –16 bytes load and 16 bytes store per cycle Goal: Maintain the historic bytes/flop ratio of SSE for Intel® AVX Memory Control 32KB 8-way L1 Data Cache 32 bytes/cycle Load Store Address Store Data Store Data 256KB L2 Cache (MLC) Fill Buffers Store Buffers Foil taken from IDF 2011

36. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 36 Memory Cluster Solution : Dual-Use the existing connections –Make load/store pipes symmetric Memory Unit services three data accesses per cycle –2 read requests of up to 16 bytes AND 1 store of up to 16 bytes –Internal sequencer deals with queued requests Second Load Port is one of highest performance features –Required to keep Intel® AVX fed –Linear power/performance Memory Control 32KB 8-way L1 Data Cache 48 bytes/cycle Load Store Address Store Data Store Data 256KB L2 Cache (MLC) Fill Buffers Store Buffers Foil taken from IDF 2011

37. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 37 Cache Hierarchy From the Optimization Manual  The LLC is inclusive of all cache levels above it –Data contained in the core caches must also reside in the LLC –Each LLC cache line holds an indication of the cores that may have this line in their L2 and L1 caches  Fetching data from LLC when another core has the data –Clean hit – data is not modified in the other core – 43 cycles –Dirty hit – data is modified in the other core – 60 cycles LevelCapacityways Line Size (bytes) Write Update Policy Inclusive Latency (cycles) Bandwidth (Byte/cyc) L1 Data32KB864Write-back-42 ×16 +16 L1 Instruction32KB864N/A--- L2 (Unified)256KB864Write-backNo121 × 32 LLCVaries 64Write-backYes26-311 × 32

38. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 38 Stores  Stores to memory are executed in two phases  At exe: fill store buffers with linear+phy address and with data –Once store address and data are known, store data can be forwarded to load operations that need it  After the store retires – completion phase –First, the line must be in L1 D$, in Exclusive or Modified MESI state –Otherwise fetch it using a Read for Ownership request  Look up the line in the following locations, in the following order L1 D$  L2$  LLC  L2 and L1 D$ in other cores  Memory –Then, read the data from the store buffers and write it to L1 D$  Mark the cache line as Modified –All this done at retirement – preserves the order of memory writes  Store latency usually does not affect the store itself –However, a burst of stores missing the L1 D$ may hurt performance –As long as the store is not complete, it occupies a store buffer entry –When the store buffer becomes full, allocation stalls From the Optimization Manual

39. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 39 L1 Data Cache  Handles two 16 byte loads and one 16 byte store per cycle  Maintains requests which cannot be completed –Cache misses –Unaligned access that splits across cache lines –Data not ready to be forwarded from a preceding store –Loads experiencing bank collisions –Load block due to cache line replacement  L1-D$ split into 8 × 8 byte banks (bits [4:2] define the banks) –An unaligned 16-byte loads can cover up to 3 banks  With 2 loads/cycle, can access up to six banks per cycle –A bank conflict happens when two load accesses need the same bank  Handles up to 10 outstanding cache misses in the LFBs –Continues to service incoming stores and loads  The L1 D$ is a write-back write-allocate cache –Stores that hit in the L1-D$ do not update the L2/LLC/Mem –Stores that miss the L1-D$ allocate a cache line From the Optimization Manual

40. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 40 Load Buffer and Store Buffer  64 entry load buffer –Keeps load μops from allocation until retirement –Re-dispatch blocked loads  36 entry store buffer –Keeps stores from allocation until the store value is written to L1-D$ (or written to the line fill buffers – for non-temporal stores) From the Optimization Manual

41. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 41 Store Forwarding  Forward data directly from a store to a load that needs it –Instead of having the store write the data to the DCU and then the load read the data from the DCU  Rules that must be met to enable store to load forwarding –The store must be the last store to that address, prior to the load –The store must contain all data being loaded –The load is from a write-back memory type and neither the load nor the store are non-temporal accesses  Stores cannot forward to loads in the following cases –Four byte and eight byte loads that cross eight byte boundary, relative to the preceding 16- or 32-byte store –Any load that crosses a 16-byte boundary of a 32-byte store From the Optimization Manual

42. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 42 Memory Disambiguation  A load may depend on a preceding store –A load needs to block until all preceding store addresses are known  Predict which loads do not depend on any previous stores –Get data from the L1 D$ even when previous store address is unknown –The prediction is verified, and if a conflict is detected  The load and all succeeding instructions are re-executed –Always assumes dependency between loads and earlier stores that have the same address bits 0:11  The following loads are not disambiguated –Loads that cross the 16-byte boundary –32-byte Intel AVX loads that are not 32-byte aligned Execution is stalled until the addresses of all previous stores are known From the Optimization Manual

43. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 43 Data Prefetching  Two hardware prefetchers load data to the L1 DC$  DCU prefetcher (the streaming prefetcher) –Triggered by an ascending access to very recently loaded data –Fetches the next line, assuming a streaming load  Instruction pointer (IP)-based stride prefetcher –Tracks individual load instructions, detecting a regular stride  Prefetch address = current address + stride  Detects strides of up to 2K bytes, both forward and backward From the Optimization Manual

44. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 44 Putting it together Sandy Bridge Microarchitecture 32k L1 Instruction Cache Scheduler Memory Control Port 0 Port 1 Port 5 Port 2 Port 3 Port 4 32k L1 Data Cache 48 bytes/cycle Allocate/Rename/Retire Zeroing Idioms Load Buffers Store Buffers Reorder Buffers Load Store Address Store Data Store Data L2 Data Cache (MLC) Fill Buffers Pre decode Instruction Queue Instruction Queue Decoders 1.5k uOP cache Decoders Branch Pred In order Out-of- order ALU VI ADD VI Shuffle AVX FP ADD ALU JMP AVX/FP Shuf AVX/FP Bool AVX FP Blend ALU VI MUL VI Shuffle DIV AVX FP Blend AVX FP MUL Foil taken from IDF 2011

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48. Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 48 Haswell Execution Units Overview

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