1. Anatomy & Physiology Revealed Images
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3. 2.1: Introduction Why study chemistry in an
Anatomy and Physiology class?
- Body functions depend on cellular functions
- Cellular functions result from chemical changes
- Biochemistry helps to explain physiological processes

4. 2.2: Structure of Matter
Matter – anything that takes up space and has mass (weight). It is composed of elements.
Elements – composed of chemically identical atoms:
Bulk elements – required by the body in large amounts
Trace elements - required by the body in small amounts
Ultratrace elements – required by the body in very minute amounts
Atoms – smallest particle of an element

5. Table 2.1 Some Particles of Matter

6. Elements and Atoms All matter is composed of elements Elements are:
Bulk elements
Trace elements
Ultratrace elements
Elements are composed of atoms of the same type
Compounds are composed of atoms of different types that are chemically bonded

7. Atomic Structure Atoms - composed of subatomic particles:
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Atoms - composed of subatomic particles:
Proton – carries a single positive charge
Neutron – carries no electrical charge
Electron – carries a single negative charge
Neutron
(n0) -
Proton
(p+) +
Electron
(e–) + - +
Nucleus
Central part of atom
Composed of protons and neutrons
Electrons move around the nucleus
Nucleus -
Lithium (Li)

8. Atomic Number and Atomic Weight
Number of protons in the nucleus of one atom
Each element has a unique atomic number
Equals the number of electrons in the atom
Atomic Weight
Approximated by the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in one atom (since a proton and a neutron each have an approximate atomic weight of one)
Electrons do not contribute to the weight of the atom

9. Isotopes
Isotopes
Atoms with the same atomic numbers but with different atomic weights
Different numbers of neutrons
Oxygen often forms isotopes (O16, O17, and O18)
Radioactive isotopes are unstable, releasing energy or pieces of themselves (atomic radiation)
For an element, the atomic weight is often considered the average of the atomic weights of its isotopes.

10. 2.1 From Science to Technology
Radioactive Isotopes Reveal Physiology

11. 2.2 From Science to Technology
Ionizing Radiation:
From the Cold War to Yucca Mountain

12. Molecules and Compounds
Molecule – particle formed when two or more atoms chemically combine
Compound – particle formed when two or more atoms of different elements chemically combine
Molecular formulas – depict the elements present and the number of each atom present in the molecule
H C6H12O H2O

13. Molecules and Compounds
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. H H H H H O O O H O H H H H H H O H H H H H O O H O H H O H O O H H O H

14. Bonding of Atoms Bonds form when atoms combine with other atoms
Electrons of an atom occupy regions of space called electron shells which circle the nucleus
For atoms with atomic numbers of 18 or less, the following rules apply:
The first shell can hold up to 2 electrons
The second shell can hold up to 8 electrons
The third shell can hold up to 8 electrons

15. Bonding of Atoms Lower shells are filled first
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If the outermost shell is full, the atom is stable - - - + + + + - + + - -
Hydrogen (H)
Helium (He)
Lithium (Li)

16. Ionic Bonds Ionic Bonds An attraction between a cation and an anion
Formed when electrons are transferred from one atom to another atom
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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Na+
Cl– + –
11p+
17p+
12n0
18n0
Sodium ion (Na+)
Chloride ion (Cl–)
Sodium chloride

17. Bonding of Atoms: Ions Ion Cation Anion
An atom that gains or loses electrons to become stable
An electrically charged atom
Cation
A positively charged ion
Formed when an atom loses electrons
11p+
17p+
12n0
18n0
Anion
A negatively charged ion
Formed when an atom gains electrons
Sodium atom (Na)
Chlorine atom (Cl)

18. Covalent Bonds Formed when atoms share electrons H ― H
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. H H H2 - - - + + + + -
Hydrogen atom +
Hydrogen atom
Hydrogen molecule
Hydrogen atoms form single bonds
Oxygen atoms form two bonds
Nitrogen atoms form three bonds
Carbon atoms form four bonds
H ― H
O = O
N ≡ N
O = C = O

19. Bonding of Atoms: Structural Formula
Structural formulas show how atoms bond and are arranged in various molecules
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. H H H H O O O O C O H2 O2
H2O
CO2

20. Bonding of Atoms: Polar Molecules
Molecule with a slightly negative end and a slightly positive end
Results when electrons are not shared equally in covalent bonds
Water is an important polar molecule
Slightly negative ends
(a)
Slightly positive ends

21. Hydrogen Bonds Hydrogen Bonds
A weak attraction between the positive end of one polar molecule and the negative end of another polar molecule
Formed between water molecules
Important for protein and nucleic acid structure H H O H
Hydrogen bonds O H H O H H O H H O H
(b)

22. Chemical Reactions
Chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds form or break among atoms, ions, or molecules
Reactants are the starting materials of the reaction - the atoms, ions, or molecules
Products are substances formed at the end of the chemical reaction
NaCl ’ Na+ + Cl-
Reactant
Products

23. Types of Chemical Reactions
Synthesis Reaction – more complex chemical structure is formed
A + B ’ AB
Decomposition Reaction – chemical bonds are broken to form
a simpler chemical structure
AB ’ A + B
Exchange Reaction – chemical bonds are broken and new bonds are formed
AB + CD ’ AD + CB
Reversible Reaction – the products can change back to the reactants
A + B n AB

24. Acids, Bases, and Salts
Electrolytes – substances that release ions in water
NaCl  Na+ + Cl-
Acids – electrolytes that dissociate to release hydrogen ions
in water
HCl  H+ + Cl-
Bases – substances that release ions that can combine with hydrogen ions
NaOH  Na+ + OH-
Salts – electrolytes formed by the reaction between an acid and a base
HCl + NaOH  H2O + NaCl

25. Acids, Bases, and Salts Na+ Cl– Salt crystal Na+ Ions in solution Cl–
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Na+
Cl–
Salt crystal
Na+
Ions in
solution
Cl–

26. Acid and Base Concentration
pH scale - indicates the concentration of hydrogen ions in
solution
Neutral – pH 7; indicates equal concentrations of H+ and OH-
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8.4
Sodium biocarbonate
Relative
Amounts
of H+ (red)
and OH–
(blue)
Acidic
6.6
cow’s milk
7.4
Human blood H +
5.3
cabbage
4.2
tomato
juice
3.0
apple
juice
11.5
Household
ammonia
2.0
gastric
juice
10.5
milk of
magnesia
8.0
Egg
white
7.0
Distilled
water
Acidic – pH less than 7; indicates a greater concentration of H+
6.0
corn
Basic
OH– pH 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 1 12 13 14
Acidic H +
concentration increases
Neutral OH –
concentration increases
Basic (alkaline)
Basic or alkaline – pH greater than 7;
indicates a greater concentration of OH-

27. Changes in pH and Buffers
Blood pH
Normal blood pH is 7.35 – 7.45
Alkalosis occurs when blood pH rises to 7.5 – 7.8
Acidosis occurs when blood pH drops to 7.0 – 7.3
Homeostatic mechanisms help regulate pH
Buffers are chemicals which act to resist pH changes

28. 2.3: Chemical Constituents of Cells
Organic vs. Inorganic Molecules
Organic molecules
Contain C and H
Usually larger than inorganic molecules
Dissolve in water and organic liquids
Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids
Inorganic molecules
Generally do not contain C and H
Usually smaller than organic molecules
Usually dissociate in water, forming ions
Water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and inorganic salts

29. Inorganic Substances Water Most abundant compound in living material
Two-thirds of the weight of an adult human
Major component of all body fluids
Medium for most metabolic reactions
Important role in transporting chemicals in the body
Absorbs and transports heat
Oxygen (O2)
Used by organelles to release energy from nutrients in order to drive cell’s metabolic activities
Necessary for survival

30. Inorganic Substances Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Waste product released during metabolic reactions
Must be removed from the body
Inorganic salts
Abundant in body fluids
Sources of necessary ions (Na+, Cl-, K+, Ca+2, etc.)
Play important roles in metabolism

31. Organic Substances Carbohydrates
Provide energy to cells
Supply materials to build cell structures
Water-soluble
Contain C, H, and O
Ratio of H to O close to 2:1 (C6H12O6)
Monosaccharides – glucose, fructose
Disaccharides – sucrose, lactose
Polysaccharides – glycogen, cellulose

32. Organic Substances Carbohydrates
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. H O C H C O H
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. H H O C H H C O H
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. H C O H C O O H H H C O H H C C O H H O O H H C O H C C H H O H
(a) Some glucose molecules
(C6H12O6) have a straight
chain of carbon atoms.
(b) More commonly, glucose
molecules form a ring structure.
(c) This shape symbolizes
the ring structure of a
glucose molecule.

33. Organic Substances Carbohydrates
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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. O O O O
(a) Monosaccharide
(b) Disaccharide
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. O O O
(c) Polysaccharide

34. Organic Substances Lipids
Soluble in organic solvents; insoluble in water
Fats (triglycerides)
Used primarily for energy; most common lipid in the body
Contain C, H, and O but less O than carbohydrates (C57H110O6)
Building blocks are 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids per molecule
Saturated fatty acids have only single carbon to carbon bonds
Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more carbon to carbon double bond
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H O H O C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
(a) Saturated fatty acid H H H H H H H H O H H H H H H H H O C C C C C C C C C C C H C H C C C C H H H H H H H H C C H
(b) Unsaturated fatty acid H H H H H

35. Organic Substances Lipids
Fats (triglycerides)
Saturated fats contain three saturated fatty acids
Mostly solid and come from animals
Unsaturated fats contain at least one unsaturated fatty acid
Mostly liquid and come from plants
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. H O H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H C O C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H O H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H C O C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H O H H H H H H H H H H H H H H C O C C C C C C C C C C C C C C H H H H H H H H H H H H H
Glycerol
portion
Fatty acid
portions

36. Organic Substances Lipids
Phospholipids
Building blocks are 1 glycerol, 2 fatty acids, and 1 phosphate per molecule
Hydrophilic and hydrophobic
Major component of cell membranes
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. H
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. H H C O
Fatty acid H C O
Fatty acid H C O
Fatty acid
Water-insoluble
(hydrophobic)
“tail” H C O
Fatty acid O H H H H C O
Fatty acid H C O P O C C N
Water-soluble
(hydrophilic)
“head” H H O – H H H
Glycerol portion
Phosphate portion
(a) A fat molecule
(b) A phospholipid molecule
(the unshaded portion may vary)
(c) Schematic representation
of a phospholipid molecule

37. Organic Substances Lipids
Steroids
Four connected rings of carbon
Widely distributed in the body, various functions
Component of cell membrane
Used to synthesize hormones
Cholesterol
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. CH CH 3 CH H H 3 2 3 C C CH CH CH CH CH 2 2 2 H C C CH 2 2 CH CH 3 H 3 C 2 HC CH CH H C C 2 CH 2 HO C C C CH H 2 C C H H 2
(a) General structure of a steroid
(b) Cholesterol

38. Organic Substances Proteins
Structural material
Energy source
Hormones
Receptors
Enzymes
Antibodies
Protein building blocks are amino acids
Amino acids held together with peptide bonds H C H C C H H H C C H S C R H C H H C H H N C C OH H N C C OH H N C C OH H H O H H O H H O

39. Organic Substances Proteins
Four Levels of Protein Structure
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Amino acids
(a) Primary structure—Each
oblong shape in this
polypeptide chain represents
an amino acid molecule. The
whole chain represents a
portion of a protein molecule. C C R H N H H C O C H
(b) Secondary structure—The
polypeptide chain of a protein
molecule is often either pleated
or twisted to form a coil. Dotted
lines represent hydrogen bonds.
R groups (see fig. 2.17)
are indicated in bold. C O H N H C N R R C H H C H R H O C H N H O C R N C N C O C N H R R R H C C H O R H O C C H H N H H C O C N O C H C N C O R R C H H H N H R H O C C R N C N C H N H O C R C O C R R N H C O H O H C H R H H N H H C C C O N O C C N
Pleated
structure C O
Coiled
structure H O C H H H N C
(c) Tertiary structure—
The pleated and coiled
polypeptide chain of a
protein molecule folds
structure.
into a unique three-dimensional
folding
Three-dimensional
(d) Quaternary structure—Two or more
polypeptide chains may be connected
to form a single protein molecule.

40. Animation: Protein Denaturation
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41. Organic Substances Nucleic Acids
Encode amino acid sequences of proteins
Building blocks are nucleotides
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. P B S
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) – double polynucleotide
RNA (ribonucleic acid) – single polynucleotide

42. Organic Substances Nucleic Acids
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. S P B P B B P S S S P B P B B P S S S P B P B B P S S S P B P B B P S S S P B P B B P S S S P B P B B P S S
(a)
(b)

43. 2.3 From Science to Technology
CT Scanning and PET Imaging

44. Important Points in Chapter 2: Outcomes to be Assessed
2.1: Introduction
Give examples of how the study of living materials requires an understanding of chemistry.
2.2: Structure of Matter
Describe the relationships among matter, atoms, and molecules.
Describe how atomic structure determines how atoms interact.
Explain how molecular and structural formulas symbolize the composition of compounds.
Describe three types of chemical reactions.
Describe the differences among acids, bases, and buffers.
Explain the pH scale.

45. Important Points in Chapter 2: Outcomes to be Assessed Continued
2.3: Chemical Constituents of Cells
List the major groups of inorganic chemicals common in cells and explain the function(s) of each group.
Describe the general functions of the main classes of organic molecules in cells.

46. Quiz 2
Complete Quiz 2 now!
Read Chapter 3.