1. Chapter 21: Environmental Policy Mr. Watson

2. Why Is Environmental Policy So Controversial? 1)Every government policy creates both winners and losers. The losers are the people who pay much of the cost without enough benefits.(Influential interest groups, Average citizens) 2)Experts either don’t know or disagree about what is happening in the environment and how to change it. 3)Most environmental policy takes the form of entrepreneurial politics- having decision makers with strong emotional appeals in order to make political advantages off the opposing group

3. The American Context I. Environmental Policy in U.S is more Adversarial than in most European nations In U.S there has been lasting conflicts over Clean Air Act. –Minimum auto emissions standards uniform throughout nation some requiring strict deadlines and expensive technology –Many inspectors enforce rules and many lawyers rebuff them. –It took thirteen years (1977- 1990) to agree on congressional revision of Clean Air Act In England, rules are more flexible and regional –Compliance is voluntary –Government and business cooperate –Policies are effective II.Depends heavily on the state Standards are left to the state Local politics decides allocations Federalism reinforces adversarial politics; separation of powers provides multiple points of access

4. Type Of Politics Entrepreneuria l Politic: Global Warming Gave rise to environmental movement o Santa Barbara oil spill, Earth Day o Led to the formation of EPA and passage of the Water Quality Improvement Act and tougher Clean Air Act in 1970 o Two years later Congress passed laws designed to clean up water Congress adopted the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (prohibits buying or selling plants or animals on "endangered" species list) "endangered" species list o Regulation forbid killing or affecting the species’ habitat

5. Majoritarian Politics: Pollution from Automobiles Clean Air Act imposed tough restrictionsClean Air o 1975: 90% reductions of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide o 1976: 90% reductions in nitrous oxides o The Clean Air Act weakened in 1977; revived in 1990 w/ tougher standards Majoritarian politics when people believe the costs are low: National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA) o Requires environmental impact statement (EIS) o Does not require specific action o Passed Congress with overwhelming support o But encouraged numerous lawsuits that block or delay projects o Popular support remains strong: costs appear low, benefits high

6. Interest Groups Politics: Acid Rain o Solutions and compromise o Burn low-sulfur coal one alternative o Effective but expensive o Low-sulfur coal comes from West, high-sulfur coal is local o Install smokestack scrubbers a second alternative o Costly, not always effective, and leave sludge o But allow use of inexpensive high-sulfur coal o Congress voted for scrubbers for all new plants o Political advantages o Protected jobs of high-sulfur coal miners; powerful allies in Congress o Environmentalists preferred scrubbers; "definitive" solution to problem o Practical disadvantages o Failed to allow for plants that burn low-sulfur coal; why spend money on scrubbers? o Failed to address problem of existing plants o Stalemate for thirteen years o Two-step regulation proposed by Bush became part of Clean Air Act of 1990

7. Client Politics: Agriculture Pesticides Issue: control of use and runoff of pesticides; farmers have mostly resisted policy entrepreneurs, with DDT an exception EPA efforts to evaluate safety of all pesticides oGiven mandate by Congress in 1972; program has not succeeded o Expensive and time consuming o The EPA budget is small Few pesticides have been removed from the market; only those receiving heavy media coverage such as DDT in 1972

8. The Environmental Uncertainties Command-and-control strategy- assumes that the rule makers and rule enforcers know how to achieve the greatest environmental gain at the least cost. 1What is the problem? a. The EPA not left alone to define problem b. Scandals and congressional demands can shift priorities 2. What are our goals? a. Many completely unrealistic b. The EPA forced to ask for extensions and revisions

9. CONTINUED… How do we achieve our goals? Offsets- If a company wants to open a new plant in an area with polluted air, it can do so if the pollution it generates is offset by a reduction in pollution from another source. Bubble Standard- a bubble is the total amount of air pollution that can come from a given factory. Pollution Allowances (Banks)- if a company reduces its polluting emissions by more than the law requires, it can either use this excess to cover a future plant expansion or sell it to another company as an offset.