2. 1 Radio and Medium Access Control

3. 2 Learning Objectives Understand important concepts about radio signals Understand radio properties of WSNs Understand schedule-based medium access protocols in WSNs Understand contention-based medium access protocols in WSNs Understand S-MAC, B-MAC, and X-MAC

4. 3 Prerequisites Basic concepts of wireless communications Basic concepts of medium access control protocols

5. 4 Radio Properties

6. 5 Some Basic Concepts RSSI dbm Noise floor: see wikipedia CCA thresholding algorithms Duty cycle LPL

7. 6 Signal Transmission Ref: Fig. 2.9 of “Wireless Communications and Networks” by William Stallings

8. 7 Packet Reception and Transmission Ref: [Hardware_1] Figure 5

9. 8 Signal An electromagnetic signal –A function of time –Also a function of frequency The signal consists of components of different frequencies

10. 9 802.15.4 Physical Layer

11. 10 dB dB (Decibel) –Express relative differences in signal strength –dB = 10 log 10 (p1/p2) –dB = 0: no attenuation. p1 = p2 –1 dB attenuation: 0.79 of the input power survives: 10 * log 10 (1/0.79) –3 dB attenuation: 0.5 of the input power survives: 10 * log 10 (1/0.5) –10 dB attenuation: 0.1 of the input power survives: 10 * log 10 (1/0.1) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decibel http://www.sss-mag.com/db.html

12. 11 dBm The referenced quantity is one milliwatt(mW) dBm = 10 log 10 (p1/1mW) 0 dBm: p1 is 1 mW -80 dBm: p1 is 10 -11 W = 10pW http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DBm

13. 12 Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) The strength of a received RF signal Many current platforms provide hardware indicator –CC2420, the radio chip of MicaZ and TelosB, provides RSSI indicator and LQI (Link Quality Indicator)

14. 13 LQI (Link Quality Indicator) A measure of chip error rate Error rate –The rate at which errors occur –Error 0 is transmitted while 1 is received 1 is transmitted while 0 is received

15. 14 Noise Floor The measure of the signal created from the sum of all the noise sources and unwanted signals

16. 15 Signal Noise Ratio (SNR) The ratio of the power in a signal to the power contained in the noise that is present Typically measured at the receiver Take CC2420 as the example: –Noise Floor: the RSSI register from the CC2420 chip when not receiving a packet For example -98dBm –The strength field from the received packet: RSSI of the received packet

17. 16 Radio Spectrum Frequency Allocation http://www.ntia.doc.gov/osmhome/allochrt.pdf

18. ref: [radio_1] Radio Irregularity Spherical radio range is not valid When an electromagnetic signal propagate, the signal may be –Diffracted –Reflected –Scattered Radio irregularity and variations in packet loss in different directions

19. [Radio_1] Figure 118 Radio Signal Property Anisotropic Signal Strength: Different path losses in different directions Figure 1: Signal Strength over Time in Four Directions

20. [Radio_1]: Figure 319 Radio Signal Property Anisotropic Packet Loss Ratio: Packet Reception Ratio (PRR) varies in different directions

21. [Radio_1]: Figure 420 Radio Signal Property Anisotropic Radio Range: The communication range of a mote is not uniform

22. 21 Medium Access Control (MAC)

23. 22 Introduction A radio channel cannot be accessed simultaneously by two or more nodes that are in a radio interference range –Nodes may transmit at the same time on the same channel Medium Access Control –On top of Physical layer –Control access to the radio channel

24. 23 MAC Protocol Requirements Energy Efficiency –Sources of energy waste Collision, Idle Listening, Overhearing, and Control Packet Overhead Effective collision avoidance –When and how the node can access the medium and send its data Efficient channel utilization at low and high data rates –Reflects how well the entire bandwidth of the channel is utilized in communications Tolerant to changing RF/Networking conditions Scalable to large number of nodes Ref: [MAC_2] Section I, II

25. [MAC_3]: Section 424 Two Basic Classes of MAC Protocol – Slotted and Sampling Slotted Protocols (Synchronous Protocols) –Nodes divides time into slots –Radio can be in receive mode, transmit mode, or powered off mode –Communication is synchronized –Data transfers occur in “slots” –TDMA, IEEE 802.15.4, S-MAC, T-MAC, etc. Also Ref: J. Polastre Dissertation – Section 2.4: http://www.polastre.com/papers/polastre-thesis- final.pdf

26. 25 Two Basic Classes of MAC Protocol – Slotted and Sampling Sampling Protocols –Nodes periodically wake up, and only start receiving data if they detect channel activity –Communication is unsynchronized –Data transfer wakes up receiver –Must send long, expensive messages to wake up neighbors –B-MAC, Preamble sampling, LPL, etc.

27. 26 Slotted Protocol Example: 802.15.4 Each node beacons on its own schedule Other nodes synchronize with the received Beacons Beacon Superframe Duration Beacon Frame Duration sleep Data Ack CSMA Contention Period

28. 27 IEEE 802.15.4 Superframe

29. 28 Using 802.15.4 RF Channel 15.4 SP wake for beacon period start radio send beacon Beacon beacon TX are messages pending? If yes, wake up send Data beacon RX send done TX first packet RX DataAck TX done Ack received send done reliability set packet received stop radio superframe complete Stop radio SP 15.4 Coordinator Neighbors Update schedule

30. 29 Main MAC Protocols Wireless medium access Centralized Distributed Contention- based Schedule- based Fixed assignment Demand assignment Contention- based Schedule- based Fixed assignment Demand assignment

31. [MAC_2]: Figure 130 Scheduled Protocols TDMA divides the channel into N time slots

32. [MAC_2]: Section IV31 Contention-based Protocols A common channel is shared by all nodes and it is allocated on-demand A contention mechanism is employed Advantages over scheduled protocols –Scale more easily –More flexible as topologies change –No requirement to form communication clusters –Do not require fine-grained time synchronization Disadvantage –Inefficient usage of energy Node listen at all times Collisions and contention for the media

33. [MAC_2]: Section IV32 CSMA Listening before transmitting Listening (Carrier Sense) –To detect if the medium is busy Hidden Terminal Problem

34. [MAC_2]: Section IV33 Hidden Terminal Problem Node A and C cannot hear each other Transmission by node A and C can collide at node B On collision, both transmissions are lost Node A and C are hidden from each other

35. [MAC_2]: Section IV34 CSMA-CA CA –Collision Avoidance: to address the hidden terminal problem Basic mechanism –Establish a brief handshake between a sender and a receiver before transmission –The transmission between a sender and a receiver follows RTS-CTS-DATA-ACK

36. 35 Centralized Medium Access Idea: Have a central station control when a node may access the medium –Example: Polling, centralized computation of TDMA schedules –Advantage: Simple, quite efficient (e.g., no collisions), burdens the central station Not directly feasible for non-trivial wireless network sizes But: Can be quite useful when network is somehow divided into smaller groups –Clusters, in each cluster medium access can be controlled centrally – compare Bluetooth piconets, for example ! Usually, distributed medium access is considered

37. 36 Schedule- vs. Contention-based MACs Schedule-based MAC –A schedule exists, regulating which participant may use which resource at which time (TDMA component) –Typical resource: frequency band in a given physical space (with a given code, CDMA) –Schedule can be fixed or computed on demand Usually: mixed – difference fixed/on demand is one of time scales –Usually, collisions, overhearing, idle listening no issues –Needed: time synchronization!

38. 37 Schedule- vs. Contention-based MACs Contention-based protocols –Risk of colliding packets is deliberately taken –Hope: coordination overhead can be saved, resulting in overall improved efficiency –Mechanisms to handle/reduce probability/impact of collisions required –Usually, randomization used somehow

39. 38 Possible Solutions CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access) –Advantage: No clock synchronization required No global topology information required –Disadvantage Hidden terminal problem: serious throughput degradation RTS/CTS can alleviate hidden terminal problem, but incur high overhead

40. 39 Possible Solutions TDMA (Time-division multiple access) –Advantage Solve the hidden terminal problem without extra message overhead –Disadvantage It is challenging to find an efficient time schedule Need clock synchronization –High energy overhead Handling dynamic topology change is expensive Given low contention, TDMA gives much lower channel utilization and higher delay

41. 40 # of Contenders Channel Utilization (The fraction of time that the channel is transmitting data) TDMA CSMA IDEAL Effective Throughput CSMA vs. TDMA Sensitive to Time synch. errors, Topology changes, Slot assignment errors. Do not use any topology or time synch. Info. Thus, more robust to time synch. errors and changes.

42. [MAC_2]: Section II.B41 Four important sources of wasted energy in WSN : –Idle Listening (required for all CSMA protocols) –Overhearing (since RF is a broadcast medium) –Collisions (Hidden Terminal Problem) –Control Overhead (e.g. RTS/CTS or DATA/ACK) MAC Energy Usage

43. 42 S-MAC During sleep, the node turns off its radio, and sets a timer to awake itself [S-MAC]: Figure 2

44. 43 S-MAC Requires periodic synchronization among neighboring node –Negotiate a schedule –Prefer that neighboring nodes listen at the same time and go to sleep at the same time –Use SYNC message [S-MAC]

45. 44 S-MAC All senders perform CS (Carrier Sense) before initiating a transmission –Broadcast packets are sent without using RTS/CTS –Unicast packet follow RTS/CTS/DATA/ACK To avoid collision [S-MAC]

46. 45 S-MAC – Overhearing Avoidance To avoid overhearing: let interfering nodes go to sleep after they hear an RTS or CTS packet [S-MAC]

47. 46 S-MAC – Adaptive Listening To improve latency caused by the periodic sleep of each node in the multi-hop network Let each node who overhears its neighbor’s transmissions (RTS and CTS) wake up a short period of time at the end of transmission [S-MAC]

48. 47 S-MAC with Adaptive Listening Ref: Figure 1 of [DW-MAC]

49. 48 B-MAC A set of primitives that other protocols may use as building block Provide basic CSMA access Optional link level ACK, no link level RTS/CTS CSMA backoffs configurable by higher layers Carrier Sensing using Clear Channel Assess (CCA) Sleep/Wake scheduling using Low Power Listening (LPL) Ref: Section 1, 3 of ref. [MAC_1] LPL: See Section 2.1 of ref. [Energy_1]

50. 49 B-MAC Does not solve hidden terminal problem Duty cycles the radio through periodic channel sampling – Low Power Listening (LPL)

51. 50 B-MAC Clear Channel Assessment - Before transmission – take a sample of the channel - If the sample is below the current noise floor, channel is clear, send immediately. - If five samples are taken, and no outlier found => channel busy, take a random backoff - Noise floor updated when channel is known to be clear e.g. just after packet transmission A packet arrives between 22 and 54ms. The middle graph shows the output of a thresholding CCA algorithm. ( 1: channel clear, 0: channel busy) Ref: Section 1, 3 of ref. [MAC_1]

52. [MAC_1]: Figure 351 A Trace of Power Consumption

53. 52 B-MAC Low Power Listening Receive data Carrier sense Receiver Long PreambleData Tx Sender Check Interval  Similar to ALOHA preamble sampling  Wake up every Check-Interval  Sample Channel using CCA  If no activity, go back to sleep for Check- Interval  Else start receiving packet  Preamble > Check-Interval Goal: minimize idle listening

54. 53 Low Power Listening Purpose –Energy cost = RX + TX + Listen –Save energy How –Duty cycle the radio while ensuring reliable message delivery –Periodically wake up, sample channel, and sleep The duty cycling receiver node performs short and periodic receive checks If the channel is checked every 100ms –The preamble must be at least 100 ms long for a node to wake up, detect activity on the channel, receive the preamble, and then receive the message.

55. 54 X-MAC Asynchronous duty-cycled MAC protocol Provide the following advantages over B- MAC –Avoid overhearing problem: embedding the Target ID in the Preamble –Reduce excessive preamble: strobed preamble Ref: Section 1, 3 of ref. [MAC_4]

56. 55 X-MAC and B-MAC Ref: Section 1, 3 of ref. [MAC_4]

57. 56 802.15.4 Frame Format Page 36 of CC2420 Data Sheet

58. http://www.mail- archive.com/tinyos- help@millennium.berkeley.edu/ms g07600.html TinyOS Implementation of CSMA o CC2420 - CCA Hardware –CC2420 has CCA as a pin that can be sampled to determine if another node is transmitting –See CC2420 Data Sheet – Figure 1 CC2420 Pinout Software –CC2420Transmit has the option to send the message with or without CCA See CC2420TransmitP.send();

59. https://www.millennium.berkeley.e du/pipermail/tinyos-help/2008- February/031061.html TinyOS Implementation of CSMA of CC2420 - Ack Hardware Ack –If MDMCTRL0.AUTOACK of CC2420 is enabled Software Ack –SACK strobe in CC2420ReceiveP can be used to set software ack