1. Forms of Energy Mechanical Focus for now May be kinetic (associated with motion) or potential (associated with position) Chemical Electromagnetic Nuclear

2. Some Energy Considerations Energy can be transformed from one form to another Essential to the study of physics, chemistry, biology, geology, astronomy Can be used in place of Newton’s laws to solve certain problems more simply

3. Work Provides a link between force and energy The work, W, done by a constant force on an object is defined as the product of the component of the force along the direction of displacement and the magnitude of the displacement

4. Work, cont. F is the magnitude of the force Δ x is the magnitude of the object’s displacement  is the angle between

5. Units of Work SI Newton meter = Joule N m = J J = kg m 2 / s 2 US Customary foot pound ft lb no special name

6. More About Work The work done by a force is zero when the force is perpendicular to the displacement cos 90° = 0 If there are multiple forces acting on an object, the total work done is the algebraic sum of the amount of work done by each force

7. More About Work, cont. Work can be positive or negative Positive if the force and the displacement are in the same direction Negative if the force and the displacement are in the opposite direction

8. When Work is Zero Displacement is horizontal Force is vertical cos 90° = 0

9. Work Can Be Positive or Negative Work is positive when lifting the box Work would be negative if lowering the box The force would still be upward, but the displacement would be downward

10. Work and Dissipative Forces Work can be done by friction The energy lost to friction by an object goes into heating both the object and its environment Some energy may be converted into sound For now, the phrase “Work done by friction” will denote the effect of the friction processes on mechanical energy alone

11. Kinetic Energy Energy associated with the motion of an object Scalar quantity with the same units as work Work is related to kinetic energy

12. Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem When work is done by a net force on an object and the only change in the object is its speed, the work done is equal to the change in the object’s kinetic energy Speed will increase if work is positive Speed will decrease if work is negative

13. Conservative Forces A force is conservative if the work it does on an object moving between two points is independent of the path the objects take between the points The work depends only upon the initial and final positions of the object Any conservative force can have a potential energy function associated with it Examples: Gravity, Nuclear force

14. Nonconservative Forces A force is nonconservative if the work it does on an object depends on the path taken by the object between its final and starting points. Examples of nonconservative forces kinetic friction, air drag, propulsive forces

15. Friction as a Nonconservative Force The friction force is transformed from the kinetic energy of the object into a type of energy associated with temperature The objects are warmer than they were before the movement Internal Energy is the term used for the energy associated with an object’s temperature

16. Friction Depends on the Path The blue path is shorter than the red path The work required is less on the blue path than on the red path Friction depends on the path and so is a non- conservative force

17. Potential Energy Potential energy is associated with the position of the object within some system Potential energy is a property of the system, not the object A system is a collection of objects interacting via forces or processes that are internal to the system

18. Work and Gravitational Potential Energy PE = mgy Units of Potential Energy are the same as those of Work and Kinetic Energy

19. Conservation of Mechanical Energy Conservation in general To say a physical quantity is conserved is to say that the numerical value of the quantity remains constant throughout any physical process In Conservation of Energy, the total mechanical energy remains constant In any isolated system of objects interacting only through conservative forces, the total mechanical energy of the system remains constant.

20. Conservation of Energy, cont. Total mechanical energy is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies in the system Other types of potential energy functions can be added to modify this equation

21. Potential Energy in a Spring Elastic Potential Energy related to the work required to compress a spring from its equilibrium position to some final, arbitrary, position x

22. Nonconservative Forces with Energy Considerations When nonconservative forces are present, the total mechanical energy of the system is not constant The work done by all nonconservative forces acting on parts of a system equals the change in the mechanical energy of the system

23. Notes About Conservation of Energy We can neither create nor destroy energy Another way of saying energy is conserved If the total energy of the system does not remain constant, the energy must have crossed the boundary by some mechanism Applies to areas other than physics

24. Power Often also interested in the rate at which the energy transfer takes place Power is defined as this rate of energy transfer SI units are Watts (W)

25. Center of Mass The point in the body at which all the mass may be considered to be concentrated When using mechanical energy, the change in potential energy is related to the change in height of the center of mass

26. Work Done by Varying Forces The work done by a variable force acting on an object that undergoes a displacement is equal to the area under the graph of F versus x

27. Spring Example Spring is slowly stretched from 0 to xmax W = ½kx²