1. Foraminifera
Marcelle BouDagher-Fadel

2. What are Foraminifera:
single-celled organisms (protists) Such organisms are classified in the Superkingdom of Protists or Protista
with a complex cell (Eukaryotes), and genetic material within a cell nucleus.
with characteristic net-like pseudopodia called reticulopodia
organic or shell-like, agglutinated or secreted outer protective layer, called a test
Cytoplasm is extruded as pseudopods through the aperture and any perforations in the test

3. Foraminifera are placed in the “Cercozoa”
Foraminifera are placed in the “Cercozoa”. Cercozoans are amoebae with filose pseudopodia, often living within hard test

4. the basis of their geological usefulness as fossils.
Most foraminifera grow an elaborate, solid calcite skeleton made of a series of chambers.
The complexity of their shell structures and their evolution in time
the basis of their geological usefulness as fossils.
 Most foraminiferal tests are sand-sized (>61 mm in diameter)

5. Both living and fossil foraminifera
inhabited the oceans.
They are extremely abundant in most marine sediments
in many different environments, from live in marine to brackish habitats
near shore to the deep sea,
and from near surface to the ocean floor
Some foraminifera live in oligotrophic reef associated with algae.

6. Composition of fossil foraminifera tests varies from
agglutinated (organic compounds, sand grains and other particles cemented together, or crystalline calcite)
calcareous secreted from calcium carbonate.

7. The test is thought to reduce biological, physical and chemical stress
The test is commonly divided into chambers which are added during growth
The test is thought to reduce biological, physical and chemical stress
The size of the test is associated with amount of the cytoplasm.
Feeding adds to the bulk of the cytoplasm, therefore, the test has to enlarge.
Foraminifera have developed several strategies for test enlargement during ontogeny
contained growth unilocular test
Bilocular test
continuous growth
simple septate growth
complex septate growth
Complex multiocular test
multilocular
These growth patterns result in a very diverse variety of test morphologies

8. the simplest forms are open tubes or hollow spheres
Both living and fossil foraminifera come in a variety of shapes and sizes
the simplest forms are open tubes or hollow spheres
Lagena
reticulation
Undivided chamber
Spirillina
Chamber: cavity containing cytoplasm. Chambers separated by septa; connected by foramina (holes) in septa. Foramen in last chamber is called aperture External lines of junction of chamber walls and septa: sutures
Planispiral, evolute, undivided tube

9. aperture Loxostomina. Carpenteria cancellation Main aperture
perture terminal
Loxostomina.
a: aperture; ad: adapertural depression; li: lip; tp: toothplate with its serrated margin.
Carpenteria
aperture
cancellation
Main aperture
Secondary aperture
A-B: Globoturborotalites

10. Quinqueloculina Heterohelix Ammonia Pulleniatina Elphidium Spirillina
biserial
milioline
Quinqueloculina
Heterohelix
streptospiral
trochospiral
Ammonia
Pulleniatina
Planipiral evolute
Planipiral involute
Elphidium
Spirillina

11. Streptospiral Planispiral Trochospiral
Chambers enveloping earlier ones: involute Chambers leaving earlier ones visible: evolute Disk-shaped spiral where two sides look the same: planispiral Disk-shaped spiral with one evolute, one involute side: trochospiral

12. What are fossil foraminifera?
Most foraminifers construct tests (shells) covering the cell body.
Fossil foraminifera are the remains of their tests (shells).
They have inhabited the oceans for more than 500 million years and found fossilised in most type of sedimentary rocks.
Fossils can be microscopic or
a few centimeters long
Fully grown individuals range in size from about 100 micrometers to almost 20 centimeters long.

13. makes foraminifera relatively small size of tests (shells)
much more useful
than larger fossils
For,
biostratigraphic,
palaeo/environmental, palaeoceanographical
and palaeoclimatological reconstruction
or petroleum exploration applications
because there can be thousands of specimens in a small sediment sample.

15. The study of the sequence of sedimentary rock strata is the main source for scientific knowledge about the Earth’s history, including biostratigraphy, paleogeography, paleoclimatology and the history of life

18. Orders of foraminifera (underlined include larger foraminifera (see BouDagher-Fadel, 2008). In red includes planktonic foraminifera)
ALLOGROMIDA: organic wall, usually 1 chamber; Cambrian-Recent
ASTRORHIZIDA: agglutinated, organic cement, usually 1 chamber or branching tube; Cambrian-Recent
LITUOLIDA: agglutinated, organic cement, many chambers, usually planispiral spiral; Cambrian-Recent
TROCHAMMINIDA: agglutinated; organic cement, many chambers, usually trochospiral; Cambrian-TEXTULARIIDA: agglutinated, low Mg-calcite cement; Cambrian-Recent
FUSULINIDA: microgranular calcite; many complex chambers; Silurian-Permian
MILIOLIDA: high Mg calcite, imperforate, many chambers (porcellaneous, no pores); miliolid chamber arrangment; Carboniferous-Recent
CARTERINIDA: low Mg calcite, hyaline, pores or no pores; spicules, plani- or trochospiral; Tertiary-Recent (?)
SPIRILLINIDA: low Mg calcite; hyaline; single crystal; spiral; Jurassic-Recent
LAGENIDA: low Mg calcite, hyaline; pores, 1 or many chambers, uniserial or planispiral; monolamellar; Carboniferous-Recent
BULIMINIDA: low Mg calcite; hyaline; pores; many chambers; bilamellar; toothplate; Triassic?-Recent
ROTALIIDA: low Mg calcite; hyaline;  pores; many chambers; bilamellar; trocho- or planispiral, annular, irregular; Triassic-Recent
GLOBIGERINIDA: low Mg calcite (aragonite in few extinct forms); pores; many chambers; bilamellar; radial crystals (PLANKTON); Jurassic-Recent
INVOLUTINIDA: aragonite; 2 chambers - 2nd tube
ROBERTINIDA: aragonite; pores; many chambers; trochospiral; Triassic-Recent
SILICOLOCULINIDA:opaline silica, no pores; chamber arrangements as in miliolids; Miocene-Recent
Genetic evidence suggests strongly that Allogromida (‘naked’) and Astrorhizida (agglutinated) are one order.

19. Planktonic foraminifera Benthic foraminifera
Life strategy
Planktonic foraminifera
Benthic foraminifera
Live attached or free
At all depth
marine, brackish and freshwater habitats
sea-floor
Float in the surface of the open ocean
and sea water column
Wide distribution
Rapid evolution + short stratigraphic range
= excellent index fossil
Small
Larger

20. Benthic foraminifera
Benthic foraminifera are bottom dwelling forms that can be either sessile or vagile.
Vagile (mobile) foraminifera are free to move along the sea floor and/or in its substrate
Cassidulina
Ammobacculites
Sessile foraminifera are permanently attached or fixed (not free-moving)
Miniacina

21. Benthic foraminifera include two major groups of foraminifera
Small benthic foraminifera
Larger benthic foraminifera
with complicated internal structures
with simple internal structures
live, attached or free, at all depths, in most marine environments, as well as in brackish, marginal marine environment with low alkanity.
occur abundantly in the shelf regions of most tropical and subtropical shallow marine, especially in carbonate-rich, environments
Calcareous microgranular and porcellaneous tests into large complex tests associated with reefs. These groups of large species became abundant when reef environments were widespread, then suffered major extinction when world climate changed and reefs were decimated

22. Benthic foraminifera are an important component of the deep-sea biomass in the present oceans, adapted to its cold, dark, and extremely oligotrophic environments.
Larger benthic foraminifera are important shallow marine rock builders
Faunas are highly diverse,
and many species have a
cosmopolitan distribution.
In addition to their interest as indicator species living in the largest habitat on earth, their tests have been used extensively in isotope and trace element analysis aimed at reconstruction of past environments.

25. Larger Foraminifera with test sizes from 2mm up to 13cm are characteristic organisms inhabiting shallow water subtropical and tropical environments today.

26. Alveolina

30. Larger foraminifera prefer clear, nutrition depleted water as can be found in the surroundings of coral reefs.
House symbiotic algae
Two main factors acting as single gradients regulate the distribution of larger foraminifera within coral reef complexes.
All house symbiotic microalgae and are thus restricted to the photic zone (-130m), getting independence from food resources outside the cell.

32. Allogromia has a proteinaceous test with a single chamber.
The oldest fossil foraminifera, from the Cambrian, are simple agglutinated tubes.
Allogromia has a proteinaceous test with a single chamber.

35. Bulimina
Cibicidoides

37. Fusulina
rice-grain shaped tests and evolved into numerous widespread species during the Permian but large forms went extinct at the end of that period when a worldwide mass extinction also eliminated most other reef dwelling organisms.

42. BouDagher-Fadel, M.K., Evolution and Geological Significance of Larger Benthic Foraminifera, Developments in Palaeontology and Stratigraphy, 21, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 544.
Haynes, J.R., Foraminifera. MacMillan, London, pp 433.