1. Where’s the Robot? Ross Mead April 3 rd, 2008

2. Where’s the Robot? Given an initial estimate P(0) of the robot’s location in the configuration space, maintain an ongoing estimate of the robot pose P(t) at time t with respect to the map.

3. Configuration Space (C-space) A set of “reachable” areas constructed from knowledge of both the robot and the world. How to create it… – abstract the robot as a point object – enlarge the obstacles to account for the robot’s footprint and degrees-of-freedom

4. Configuration Space (C-space) Footprint – the amount of space a robot occupies Degrees-of-Freedom (DoF) – number of variables necessary to fully describe a robot’s “pose” in space – How many DoF does the Create have?

5. Configuration Space (C-space) Obstacles Free Space Robot (treat as point object) (x, y,  )

6. “We don’t need no stinkin’ sensors!” Send a movement command to the robot. Assume command was successful… – set pose to expected pose following the command But… robot movement is not perfect… – imperfect hardware (yes… blame hardware… ) – wheel slippage – discrepancies in wheel circumferences – skid steering

7. Reasons for Motion Errors bump ideal case different wheel diameters carpet and many more …

8. What Do We Know About the World? Proprioception sensing things about one's own internal status Common proprioceptive sensors are: – thermal – hall effect – optical – contact Exteroception sensing things about the environment Common exteroceptive sensors are: – electromagnetic spectrum – sound – touch – smell/odor – temperature – range – attitude (Inclination)

9. Overview of Location

10. Locomotion Power of motion from place to place. Differential drive (Pioneer 2-DX, iRobot Create) Car drive (Ackerman steering) Synchronous drive (B21) Mecanum wheels, XR4000

11. ICC For rolling motion to occur, each wheel has to move along its y -axis. Instantaneous Center of Curvature (ICC)

12. Differential Drive Differences in the velocities of wheels determines the turning angle of the robot. Forward Kinematics – Given the wheels’ velocities (or positions), what is the robot’s velocity/position ?

13. Motion Model Kinematics – The effect of a robot’s geometry on its motion. – If the motors move this much, where will the robot be? Two types of common motion models: – Odometry-based – Velocity-based (“ded reckoning”) Odometry-based models are used when systems are equipped with wheel encoders. Velocity-based models have to be applied when no wheel encoders are given… – calculate new pose based on velocities and time elapsed – in the case of the Creates, we focus on this model

14. Ded Reckoning “Do you mean, ‘dead reckoning’”?

15. Ded Reckoning That’s not a typo… – “ded reckoning” = deduced reckoning reckon  to determine by reference to a fixed basis Keep track of the current position by noting how far the robot has traveled on a specific heading… – used for maritime navigation – uses proprioceptive sensors in the case of the Creates, we utilize velocity control

16. Ded Reckoning 1.Specify system measurements… consider possible coordinate systems 2.Determine the point (radius) about which the robot is turning… to minimize wheel slippage, this point (the ICC ) must lie at the intersection of the wheels’ axles 3.Determine the angular velocity ω at which the robot is turning to obtain the robot velocity v … each wheel must be traveling at the same ω about the ICC 4.Integrate to find position P(t)… the ICC changes over time t

17. R ICC  (x, y) y  x vlvl vrvr Ded Reckoning Of these five, what’s known and what’s not? Thus, ( v r and v l in mm / sec )

18. ICC R P(t)P(t) P(t+t)P(t+t) Ded Reckoning or

19. ICC R P(t)P(t) P(t+t)P(t+t) Ded Reckoning or This is kinematics… Sucks,… don’t it… ?

20.  (Adding It All Up) Update the wheel velocities and, thus, robot velocity information at each sensor update… How large can/should a single segment be?

21. Example Move Function // move x centimeters (x > 0), // vel in mm/sec (-500 to 500) void move(float x, int vel) // move is approximate { int dist = (int)(x * 10.0); // change cm to mm create_distance(); // update Create internal distance gc_distance = 0; // and initialize IC’s distance global msleep(50L); // pause before next signal to Create if (dist != 0) { create_drive_straight(vel); if (vel > 0) while (gc_distance < dist) create_distance(); else while (gc_distance > -dist) create_distance(); msleep(50L); // pause between distance checks } create_stop(); // stop } // move(float, int)

22. Example Turn Function // deg > 0 turn left (CCW), // deg < 0 turn right (CW), // vel in mm/sec (0 to 500) void turn(int deg, int vel) // turn is approximate { create_angle(); msleep(50L); // initialize angle gc_total_angle = 0; // and update IC’s angle global if (deg > 0) { create_spin_CCW(vel); while (gc_total_angle < deg) { create_angle(); msleep(50L); } else { create_spin_CW(vel); while (gc_total_angle > deg) { create_angle(); msleep(50L); } create_stop(); // stop } // turn(int, int)

23. Putting It All Together How can we modify move(..) and turn(..) to implement ded reckoning to maintain the robot’s pose at all times? – I leave this to you as an exercise…

24. Types of Mobile Robot Bases Holonomic A robot is holonomic if it can move to change its pose instantaneously in all available directions. Non-holonomic A robot is non-holonomic if it can not move to change its pose instantaneously in all available directions.

25. Types of Mobile Robot Bases Ackerman Drive – typical car steering – non-holonomic

26. Types of Mobile Robot Bases Omni Drive – wheel capable of rolling in any direction – robot can change direction without rotating base Synchro Drive

27. Types of Mobile Robot Bases

28. Dead Reckoning Ded reckoning makes hefty assumptions… – perfect traction with ground (no slippage) – identical wheel circumferences – ignores surface area of wheels (no skid steering) – sensor error and uncertainty…

29. Dead Reckoning

30. What’s the Problem? Sensors are the fundamental input for the process of perception… – therefore, the degree to which sensors can discriminate the world state is critical Sensor Aliasing – many-to-one mapping between environmental states to the robot’s perceptual inputs – amount of information is generally insufficient to identify the robot’s position from a single reading

31. What’s the Problem? Sensor Noise – adds a limitation on the consistency of sensor readings – often the source of noise is that some environmental features are not captured by the robot’s representation Dynamic Environments Unanticipated Events Obstacle Avoidance

32. robot trackingrobot kidnapping global problemlocal problem Where am I? ? Localization

33. robot trackingrobot kidnapping global problemlocal problem Only local data! (even perfect data) Localization

34. robot trackingrobot kidnapping global problemlocal problem Direct map-matching can be overwhelming Localization

35. Initial (uniform) distribution Key idea: keep track of a probability distribution for where the robot might be in the known map black - blue - red - cyan Where’s this? Monte Carlo Localization (MCL)

36. Key idea: keep track of a probability distribution for where the robot might be in the known map Initial (uniform) distributionIntermediate stage 1 blue black - blue - red - cyan Monte Carlo Localization (MCL)

37. Key idea: keep track of a probability distribution for where the robot might be in the known map Initial (uniform) distributionIntermediate stage 2 black - blue - red - cyan red blue Monte Carlo Localization (MCL)

38. Key idea: keep track of a probability distribution for where the robot might be in the known map Initial (uniform) distributionIntermediate stagesFinal distribution But how? cyan black - blue - red - cyan Monte Carlo Localization (MCL)

39. Bag o’ tricks Bayes’ rule p( A | B ) = p( B | A ) p( A ) p( B ) Definition of marginal probability p( A ) = p( A | B ) p(B)  all B p( A ) = p( A  B )  all B Definition of conditional probability p( A  B ) = p( A | B ) p(B) What are these saying? Deriving MCL

40. The robot does (or can be modeled to) alternate between We do know m -- the map of the environment p( o | r, m ) p( r new | r old, a, m ) -- the sensor model = the accuracy of performing action a -- the motion model (or will know) We want to know P(t) -- the pose of the robot at time t but we’ll settle for p( P(t) ) -- a probability distribution for P(t) ! What kind of thing is p( P(t) ) ? sensing -- getting range observations o 1, o 2, o 3, …, o t-1, o t acting -- driving around (or ferrying?) a 1, a 2, a 3, …, a t-1 “local maps” whence? Setting Up the Problem

41. p( o | r, m ) sensor model map m and location r p( | r, m ) =.95 p( | r, m ) =.05 potential observations o “probabilistic kinematics” -- encoder uncertainty red lines indicate commanded action the cloud indicates the likelihood of various final states p( r new | r old, a, m ) action model Sensor Model

42. Key question: We may know where our robot is supposed to be, but in reality it might be somewhere else… V R (t) V L (t) starting position supposed final pose x y lots of possibilities for the actual final pose What should we do? Probabilistic Kinematics

43. p( o | r, m ) sensor model p( r new | r old, a, m ) action model (0) Model the physics of the sensor/actuators (with error estimates) theoretical modeling (1) Measure lots of sensing/action results and create a model from them empirical modeling take N measurements, find mean (m) and st. dev. (  ), and then use a Gaussian model or, some other easily-manipulated (probability?) model... p( x ) = 0 if |x-m| > s 1 otherwise1- |x-m|/s otherwise 0 if |x-m| > s Robot Models: How-To

44. Create a program that will run your robot in a square (~2m to a side), pausing after each side before turning and proceeding. 1 2 3 4 For 10 runs, collect both the odometric estimates of where the robot thinks it is and where the robot actually is after each side. You should end up with two sets of 30 angle measurements and 40 length measurements: one set from odometry and one from “ground- truth.” Find the mean and the standard deviation of the differences between odometry and ground truth for the angles and for the lengths – this is the robot’s motion uncertainty model. start and “end” This provides a probabilistic kinematic model. MODEL the error in order to reason about it! Running around in squares

45. Start by assuming p( r 0 ) is the uniform distribution. take K samples of r 0 and weight each with a “probability” of 1/K dimensionality?! “Particle Filter” representation of a probability distribution Monte Carlo Localization (MCL)

46. Start by assuming p( r 0 ) is the uniform distribution. Get the current sensor observation, o 1 For each sample point r 0 multiply the importance factor by p(o 1 | r 0, m) take K samples of r 0 and weight each with a “probability” of 1/K “probability” Monte Carlo Localization (MCL)

47. Normalize (make sure the importance factors add to 1) You now have an approximation of p(r 1 | o 1, …, m) and the distribution is no longer uniform How did this change? Start by assuming p( r 0 ) is the uniform distribution. Get the current sensor observation, o 1 For each sample point r 0 multiply the importance factor by p(o 1 | r 0, m) take K samples of r 0 and weight each with a “probability” of 1/K Monte Carlo Localization (MCL)

48. Create new samples by dividing up large clumps each point spawns new ones in proportion to its importance factor Normalize (make sure the importance factors add to 1) You now have an approximation of p(r 1 | o 1, …, m) and the distribution is no longer uniform How did this change? Start by assuming p( r 0 ) is the uniform distribution. Get the current sensor observation, o 1 For each sample point r 0 multiply the importance factor by p(o 1 | r 0, m) take K samples of r 0 and weight each with a “probability” of 1/K Monte Carlo Localization (MCL)

49. The robot moves, a 1 For each sample r 1, move it according to the model p(r 2 | a 1, r 1, m) Where do the purple ones go? Create new samples by dividing up large clumps each point spawns new ones in proportion to its importance factor Normalize (make sure the importance factors add to 1) You now have an approximation of p(r 1 | o 1, …, m) and the distribution is no longer uniform How did this change? Start by assuming p( r 0 ) is the uniform distribution. Get the current sensor observation, o 1 For each sample point r 0 multiply the importance factor by p(o 1 | r 0, m) take K samples of r 0 and weight each with a “probability” of 1/K Monte Carlo Localization (MCL)

50. The robot moves, a 1 For each sample r 1, move it according to the model p(r 2 | a 1, r 1, m) Where do the purple ones go? Create new samples by dividing up large clumps each point spawns new ones in proportion to its importance factor Normalize (make sure the importance factors add to 1) You now have an approximation of p(r 1 | o 1, …, m) and the distribution is no longer uniform How did this change? Start by assuming p( r 0 ) is the uniform distribution. Get the current sensor observation, o 1 For each sample point r 0 multiply the importance factor by p(o 1 | r 0, m) take K samples of r 0 and weight each with a “probability” of 1/K Increase all the indices by 1 and keep going! Monte Carlo Localization (MCL)

51. “Monte Carlo” Localization -- refers to the resampling of the distribution each time a new observation is integrated Rhino Minerva Monte Carlo Localization (MCL)

52. “Monte Carlo” Localization -- refers to the resampling of the distribution each time a new observation is integrated Monte Carlo Localization (MCL)

53. Plusses Drawbacks Simple algorithm Well-motivated via probabilistic reasoning It has worked well in practice! Taking a step back…

54. Plusses Naturally fuses data from very disparate sensors! Drawbacks Simple algorithm Well-motivated via probabilistic reasoning Doesn’t require control of the robot: passive localization It’s an any-time algorithm It has worked well in practice! Taking a step back…

55. Plusses Naturally fuses data from very disparate sensors! Drawbacks Simple algorithm Well-motivated via probabilistic reasoning Any-time may not be enough ! Empty distributions Doesn’t require control of the robot: passive localization Doesn’t use the robot control available: active localization It’s an any-time algorithm It has worked well in practice! Taking a step back…

56. Questions? Thanks!