1. Covalent compounds Covalent compounds are formed when non-metal atoms react together. As these atoms come near their outer electrons are attracted to the nucleus of both atoms and become shared by the atoms. The shared electrons count towards the shells of both atoms so both shells become full.

2. Covalent bonds covalent bond.A pair of electrons shared in this way is known as a covalent bond. You can draw all the electrons, or just the outer shell electrons. You can even just show the shared electrons, or represent the bond with a line. We can do this in our books, but not in the exam! F XXXX F F F -

3. Small covalent structures Small covalent molecules have simple molecular structures. a simple molecular structure covalent bonds

4. Giant covalent structures giant lattice.Sometimes millions of atoms are joined together by covalent bonds to form a giant lattice. a giant lattice covalent bonds

5. Covalent bonding in chlorine Chlorine (2.8.7) needs 1 more electron to attain a full electron shell. Cl (2,8,7) Cl ( 2,8,7 ) Cl (2,8,8) Cl (2,8,8) Cl-Cl

6. Both fluorine and chlorine needs 1 more electron to attain a full electron shell. Cl (2,8,7) F ( 2,7 ) Copy this diagram and add the electron arrangements that could exist in fluorine chloride (FCl). Cl (2,8,8) F ( 2,8 )

7. Covalent bonding in hydrogen chloride Both hydrogen (1) and chlorine (2.8.7) needs 1 more electron to attain a full outer shell. H (2) Cl (2,8,8) H-Cl Cl (2,8,7) H (1)

8. Covalent bonding in water Hydrogen (1) needs 1 more electron but oxygen (2.6) needs 2 more. Therefore, we need 2 hydrogens. O H H O H H O H H

9. Hydrogen (1) needs 1 more electron. How many does nitrogen (2.5) need? How many hydrogens per 1 nitrogen? Draw bonding diagrams for ammonia. N H H H N H H H 3 3

10. Hydrogen (1) needs 1 more electron. How many does carbon (2.4) need? How many hydrogens per 1 carbon? Draw bonding diagrams for methane. 4 4 C H H H H C H H H H

11. H H O O H H O O Copy the atoms below. Complete the diagram showing how each atom can achieve full shells.

12. Covalent bonding - multiple bonds Mostly electrons are shared as pairs. There are some compounds where they are shared in fours or even sixes. This gives rise to single, double and triple covalent bonds. Again, each pair of electrons is often represented by a single line when doing simple diagrams of molecules. Cl-Cl Single bond O=O Double bond N=N Triple bond

13. Covalent bonding in oxygen Oxygen (2.8.6) needs 2 more electrons to attain a full electron shell. O O O=O O O 4 electrons

14. Nitrogen (2.8.5) needs 3 more electrons to attain a full electron shell and forms a triple bond. Draw a bonding diagram of nitrogen. 6 electrons N N N N N=N

15. 1.Hydrogen fluoride (HF) 2.Hydrogen sulphide (H 2 S) 3.Ethane (C 2 H 6 and the carbons are joined by a single covalent bond) 4.Carbon dioxide (CO 2 and the carbon oxygen bonds are double bonds) H F H H S H H H H H H CC CO O Draw ‘dot and cross’ type bonding diagrams for each of the following:

16. Giant covalent structures 1.Carbon atoms form giant structures. 2.What is interesting is that there is more than one possible arrangement for the atoms. 3.Although this does not affect the chemical properties it can make a huge difference to the physical properties such as hardness, slipperiness, melting point and density. Different arrangements of the same element are called allotropes. C

17. Giant covalent structures: diamond One form of carbon is diamond. Each diamond consists of millions of carbon atoms bonded into a single giant structure. veryIt is very hard. Diamond strong covalent bonds carbon atoms

18. Giant covalent structures: graphite A more common form of carbon is graphite. Millions of carbon atoms are bonded into a giant structure but within this structure the layers are only weakly joined.

19. Giant covalent structures: carbon footballs! During the last 20 years new forms of carbon have been discovered some of which have “closed cage” arrangements of the atoms. These are large but are not really giant molecules. One of them contains 60 carbon atoms and bears remarkable similarities to a football!

20. Giant covalent structures: sand Sand is an impure form of silicon dioxide. Although it is a compound, it has a giant covalent structure with certain similarities to diamond.

21. METALLIC BONDING

22. Metallic bonding Metal atoms form a giant lattice similar to ionic compounds. The outermost electrons on each metal are free to move throughout the structure and form a “sea of electrons”. Having released electrons into this “sea” the metal atoms are left with a + charge. = positively charged metal ion Metallic bonding is the attraction of + metal ions for the “sea of electrons.”

23. BONDING AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

24. Bonding and physical properties These are things such as: Density Conductivity Malleability/ brittleness Melting point The type of structure that substances have has a huge effect upon physical properties. The next few slides illustrate just a few of the general patterns.

25. Ionic compounds are very brittle. Opposite charges attract, so neighbouring ions are pulled together. When something hits the substance a layer of ions will be pushed so that they are next to ions with the same charge. Attraction becomes: + - + - + - - ++ + - + - -- - + + + - + - + - - ++ + - + - + - - ++ Blow + - + - + - - ++ repulsion! Bonding and physical properties

26. Metals are not brittle. The metal atoms are the same and exist in simple structures. If something hits the substance, it simply moves to the next layer along. Blow Bonding and physical properties

27. Covalent substances do not conduct electricity. This is because in covalent substances the outer electrons are fixed (localised) between specific atoms. Metals conduct electricity. In metals the electrons can, given a potential, move anywhere throughout the structure. H H H H H H CC electrons fixed in covalent bonds electrons free to move Bonding and physical properties

28. Ionic substances do not conduct electricity as solids. When molten or dissolved they will conduct (and also undergo electrolysis). This is because the electricity is carried through the solution by the ions which are free to move when the ionic compound is molten or in solution. + - + - + - - ++ + - + - -- - + + + - + - + - - ++ Solid – not free to move Doesn’t conduct - + + - + - Molten – mobile Does conduct Bonding and physical properties

29. Generally substances with giant structures have high melting points and boiling points. Small molecules have melting points and boiling points that increase as the size of the molecule increases. + - + - + - - ++ + - + - -- - + + + - + - + - - ++ In giant structures all the atoms are tightly bonded together. Usually they are high melting-point solids. Small molecules tend to be gas, liquid solids with low melting points. weak forces between molecules Bonding and physical properties

30. Generally substances with giant structures do not dissolve easily (although many ionic compounds dissolve in water for a special reason). Again this is because in giant structures separating the particles involves breaking chemical bonds. Small molecules usually dissolve in a range of solvents. We just separate one molecule from another. weak forces between molecules + - + - + - - ++ + - + - -- - + + + - + - + - - ++ Giant structures generally don’t dissolve easily. strong bonds between the atoms/ions Bonding and physical properties

31. The density of substances depends upon how closely the atoms are packed together. Giant structures, metals especially, tend to be dense because all atoms/ions are pulled tightly together. Small molecules often have lower densities. Small molecules tend to have low densities because of space wasted between the molecules. weak forces between molecules + - + - + - - ++ + - + - -- - + + + - + - + - - ++ Giant structures generally have high densities. atoms / ions held closely together Bonding and physical properties

32. Copy the Table and fill in the blank columns. Yes LowNoE Small or giant? Yes No Yes Conduct when molten NoHighNoD HighNoC LowYesB HighNoA Metal Ionic Small Mol Giant Mol Conduct as solid Melting Point Soluble in petrol GiantMetal SmallSmall Mol Giant Giant Mol Giant Ionic Substance E is peculiar: Can you suggest an actual substance that E could be? Can you explain the low melting point? Metal Giant Activity Substance

34. What type of bonding will the substances have? SubstanceBonding Brass (Alloy copper + zinc) Copper oxide Sulphur dioxide Iron Sodium fluoride Nitrogen chloride Metallic Ionic Covalent Metallic Ionic Covalent

35. Which of the following will have covalent bonding? A. Sodium chloride B. Iron C. Bronze D. Nitrogen dioxide

36. Which of the following will have metallic bonding? A. Copper chloride B. Graphite C. Bronze D. Phosphorus chloride

37. Which is a true statement about covalent bonds? A. Usually formed between metals and non- metals B. Involve transfer of electrons between atoms. C. Form full electron shells by sharing of electrons. D. Always involve 2 electrons per atom.

38. Which of the following exists as a giant molecular structure? A. Water B. Carbon dioxide C. Sodium chloride D. Diamond

39. What will be the formula of the compound formed by hydrogen and sulphur? A.HS B.H 2 S C.HS 2 D.H 2 S 2 32 S 16 1H11H1 1 2.8.6

40. Which of these will conduct as both solid and liquid? A. metal B. ionic C. small molecules D. giant molecules

41. Which of these will conduct when liquid but not when solid? A. small molecules B. giant molecules C. metal D. ionic

42. Which of these will dissolve in solvents like petrol? A. small molecules B. giant molecules C. metal D. ionic

43. Which of these will not conduct at all and is hard to melt? A. small molecules B. giant molecules C. metal D. ionic