1. Virtual Memory

2. Invented on Manchester atlas 1962 It embodied many pioneering features, which we now take for granted. These include system features such as, Timesharing of several concurrent computing and peripheral operations, Multiprogramming, and the One-Level Store (Virtual Store). Design features included, High-speed arithmetic, Asynchronous control, interleaved stores, paging, Fixed store (ROM), and autonomous transfer units. These both required and enabled Software developments such as the Supervisor (Operating System), the Compiler-Compiler and High level languages.

3. Reason was economic Two technologies were available Magnetic cores and Magnetic drums The economics of the available store technology was quite simple. One bit of Magnetic Core store cost three shillings whilst one bit of magnetic drum store cost six pennies. Core was six times more expensive than drum. Therefore the main storage was a combination of the two technologies.

4. Core store It consisted of several stacks. Each stack had 4096 words of 48 bits operating with a cycle time of 2 microseconds. Arranging the store into pairs of stacks, with a selection mechanism for each stack reduces the effective access time. Each pair consists of an Even and an Odd stack. The even stack contains words with even addresses and the odd stack the words with odd addresses. Consecutive words in a block are thus stored alternately in even and odd stacks of the pair containing the block.

5. 1971 Ladybird book of computers for primary schools

6. Pages Each block consisted of 512 words and was contained in a page of the core store. There were 16 pages in each pair of stacks.

7. Drum store The Magnetic Drum Store was the backing store. There were four drums each of 24k words, giving a total of 96k words. The revolution time was 12 milliseconds, a drum latency of six milliseconds. The rate of transfer was one block of 512 words per two milliseconds.

8. Lady bird book drum store

9. One Level Store The Drum and Main Core Store were referred to as the Main Store of the machine. Words within this store were addressed in blocks of 512 words up to 192 blocks, the drum capacity. When a block was transferred into a page of the core store, the block address was recorded in a Page Address Register located in the core store controller.

10. Page address registers There were 32 such registers, one for each page in the core store. When an address was decoded as referring to a word in the store, the block address bits were compared with the Page Address Registers. page PAR high low Associative memory access

11. Page faulting If the block was in the core store an Equivalence signal would cause the word transfer to occur. If the block was not down in the core store a Non Equivalence signal would cause the main program to be held up, or interrupted, and a drum transfer routine entered to bring the block down from the drum. After the drum transfer the main program would continue and this time an Equivalence signal would permit the word transfer.

12. Fault handler The page fault handler was held in a separate read only memory or ROM 1.It reads in a page from drum into a core page 2.It loads the page address register with the pages drum address 3.It returns from interrupt

13. Retry At this point the instruction restarts and in this case one PAR returns Equivalence Enables the read Note that the PAGE FAULT interrupt must return to the instruction that caused the fault. This is unlike an ordinary interrupt that returns to the next instruction

14. Intel 286 first micro with virtual memory

15. 286 registers General Purpose Registers Segment Registers AH/AL AX Accumulator CS Code Segment BH/BL BX Base DS Data Segment CH/CL CX Counter SS Stack Segment DH/DL DX Data ES Extra Segment Pointer Registers Stack Registers SI Source Index SP Stack Pointer DI Destination Index BP Base Pointer IP Instruction Pointer

16. Segmented addressing All addresses were 32 bits long and split into two parts Segment:Offset Each was 16 bits in length The Segment came from a segment register and the Offset from a pointer register, or a constant in the instruction

17. Examples Mov ax, DS:100h loads word at 100hex in the data segment into ax Add ax,ES:[SI] adds the word in the Extra segment at the offset in the SI register to the ax register

18. Virtual memory A 286 expanded addressable physical memory to 16MB and addressable virtual memory to 1GB.MBGB This was done by using the segment registers only for storing an index to a segment table. There were two such tables, the GDT and the LDT, holding each up to 8192 segment descriptors, each segment giving access to up to 64 KB of memory.GDTLDT

19. Segmented vm

20. Look up descriptor table On the 386, 486 and 586 offset is 32 bits, on 286 it was 16

21. Segment selector A selector is loaded into the segment register and triggers the acces to the segment tables

22. Fault on load seg reg The virtual memory fault occurs when the segment register is loaded. Thus Mov es,ax moves ax to the es register. If the segment table shows the segment as being absent there will be an interrupt

23. Hidden and visible parts Segment registers have a hidden part that is loaded by hardware when the user loads the selector field

24. Segment descriptors The segment tables contain descriptors to the segments

25. Protection Attempt to access beyond segment limit causes segment fault Unlimited recursion on routine cause stack segment fault Attempt to execute data segment cause fault Attempt to write to code segment will cause fault

26. 2 level translation ( from 386 on) offset Segmentation mechanism Linear addr Paging mechanism RAM addr seg 48 bit 32 bit < 32 bit

27. Page table mechanism

28. Page directory entry

29. Contrast Segments Variable sized Strongly typed Pages Fixed size Weakly typed

30. Why two mechanisms Two different operating system design philosophies IBM OS/2 and early versions of Windows used segments Linux and recent versions of Windows use only the paging system This was a hangover from the DEC Vax processor from which they were ported which had only pages

31. Efficiency Key feature of any VM system is that one must make memory access fast. You can not afford multiple real memory acceses for each virtual memory access attempted by the program Atlas got round this by using associative memory registers

32. Segment approach The segmented memory system gains efficiency by only doing a check when the segment register is loaded. It can then be used many times : For example, point the segment register at the base of an array, then subsequently each individual array access has no overhead.

33. Page translation cache on Pentium Linear addr registers On chip associative page address registers. This is small, only about 64 of them Chip boundary Physical address

34. Use of the page trans cache This is similar to the approach of the Atlas except that the associative registers are loaded by hardware from the page directory in main memory. A software interrupt only occurs if the page directory marks page as absent Most memory accesses are within a page and so use only the associative registers