1. Chapter 1: Introduction to Statistics
PowerPoint Lecture Slides Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences Eighth Edition by Frederick J Gravetter and Larry B. Wallnau

2. Learning Outcomes 1 Know key statistical terms 2
Know key measurement terms 3
Know key research terms 4
Know the place of statistics in science 5
Understand summation notation

3. Math Skills Assessment
Statistics requires basic math skills
Inadequate basic math skills puts you at risk in this course
Appendix A Math Skills Assessment helps you determine if you need a skills review
Appendix A Math Skills Review provides a quick refresher course on those areas.
The final Math Skills Assessment identifies your basic math skills competence
Some instructors may prefer to put this slide at the end of the lecture.

4. 1.1 Statistics, Science and Observations
“Statistics” means “statistical procedures”
Uses of Statistics
Organize and summarize information
Determine exactly what conclusions are justified based on the results that were obtained
Goals of statistical procedures
Accurate and meaningful interpretation
Provide standardized evaluation procedures
Instructors may wish to note that there are many different meanings of the term “statistics” so students should be certain they understand which meaning is being referenced in this course.

5. 1.2 Populations and Samples
The set of all the individuals of interest in a particular study
Vary in size; often quite large
Sample
A set of individuals selected from a population
Usually intended to represent the population in a research study
Population vs. sample is a critical distinction that will be the basis for understanding many others aspects of applying statistical procedures in this course. Instructors may wish to emphasize some of the subtle clues the text authors used to remind tem of the differences, e.g., greek letters for population parameters, italicized sample statistic symbols, and N vs. n.

6. Figure 1.1 Relationship between population and sample
FIGURE 1.1 The relationship between a population and a sample.

7. Variables and Data Variable Data (plural) Data set A datum (singular)
Characteristic or condition that changes or has different values for different individuals
Data (plural)
Measurements or observations of a variable
Data set
A collection of measurements or observations
A datum (singular)
A single measurement or observation
Commonly called a score or raw score

8. Parameters and Statistics
A value, usually a numerical value, that describes a population
Derived from measurements of the individuals in the population
Statistic
A value, usually a numerical value, that describes a sample
Derived from measurements of the individuals in the sample

9. Descriptive & Inferential Statistics
Descriptive statistics
Summarize data
Organize data
Simplify data
Familiar examples
Tables
Graphs
Averages
Inferential statistics
Study samples to make generalizations about the population
Interpret experimental data
Common terminology
“Margin of error”
“Statistically significant”

10. Sampling Error Sample is never identical to population Sampling Error
The discrepancy, or amount of error, that exists between a sample statistic and the corresponding population parameter
Example: Margin of Error in Polls
“This poll was taken from a sample of registered voters and has a margin of error of plus-or-minus 4 percentage points” (Box 1.1)
Students sometimes associate “error” with being wrong. Although that is not a completely incorrect understanding, it tends to prevent them from being able to accept that a quantifiable degree of imprecision is much better than a random guess.

11. Figure 1.2 A demonstration of sampling error
FIGURE 1.2 A demonstration of sampling error. Two samples are selected from the same population. Notice that the sample statistics are different from one sample to another, and all of the sample statistics are different from the corresponding population parameters. The natural differences that exist, by chance, between a sample statistic and a population parameter are called sampling error.

12. Figure 1.3 Role of statistics in experimental research
FIGURE 1.3 The role of statistics in research.

13. Learning Check A statistic A variable A parameter
A researcher is interested in the effect of amount of sleep on high school students’ exam scores. A group of 75 high school boys agree to participate in the study. The boys are… A
A statistic B
A variable C
A parameter D
A sample

14. Learning Check - Answer
A researcher is interested in the effect of amount of sleep on high school students’ exam scores. A group of 75 high school boys agree to participate in the study. The boys are… A
A statistic B
A variable C
A parameter D
A sample

15. Learning Check
Decide if each of the following statements is True or False.
T/F
Most research studies use data from samples
When sample differs from the population there is a systematic difference between groups

16. Learning Check - Answer
True
Samples used because it is not feasible or possible to measure all individuals in the population
False
Sampling error due to random influences may produce unsystematic group differences

17. 1.3 Data Structures, Research Methods, and Statistics
Individual Variables
A variable is observed
“Statistics” describe the observed variable
Category and/or numerical variables
Relationships between variables
Two variables observed and measured
One of two possible data structures used to determine what type of relationship exists

18. Relationships Between Variables
Data Structure I: The Correlational Method
One group of participants
Measurement of two variables for each participant
Goal is to describe type and magnitude of the relationship
Patterns in the data reveal relationships
Non-experimental method of study

19. Figure 1.4 Data structures for studies evaluating the relationship between variables
Figure 1.4 One of two data structures for studies evaluating the relationship between variables. Note that there are two separate measurements for each individual (wake-up time and academic performance). The same scores are shown in table (a) and graph (b).

20. Correlational Method Limitations
Can demonstrate the existence of a relationship
Does not provide an explanation for the relationship
Most importantly, does not demonstrate a cause-and-effect relationship between the two variables

21. Relationships Between Variables
Data Structure II: Comparing two (or more) groups of Scores
One variable defines the groups
Scores are measured on second variable
Both experimental and non-experimental studies use this structure
Instructors may wish to introduce the term “quasi-experimental” in this section.

22. Figure 1.5 Data structure for studies comparing groups
FIGURE 1.5 The second data structure for studies evaluating the relationship between variables. Note that one variable is used to define the groups and the second variable is measured to obtain scores within each group.

23. Experimental Method Goal of Experimental Method Manipulation
To demonstrate a cause-and-effect relationship
Manipulation
The level of one variable is determined by the experimenter
Control rules out influence of other variables
Participant variables
Environmental variables

24. Figure 1.6 The structure of an experiment
FIGURE 1.6 The structure of an experiment. Participants are randomly assigned to one of two treatment condition: counting money or counting blank pieces of paper. Later, each participant is tested by placing one hand in a bowl of hot (122° F) water and rating the level of pain. A difference between the ratings for the two groups is attributed to the treatment (paper versus money).

25. Independent/Dependent Variables
Independent Variable is the variable manipulated by the researcher
Independent because no other variable in the study influences its value
Dependent Variable is the one observed to assess the effect of treatment
Dependent because its value is thought to depend on the value of the independent variable

26. Experimental Method: Control
Methods of control
Random assignment of subjects
Matching of subjects
Holding level of some potentially influential variables constant
Control condition
Individuals do not receive the experimental treatment.
They either receive no treatment or they receive a neutral, placebo treatment
Purpose: to provide a baseline for comparison with the experimental condition
Experimental condition
Individuals do receive the experimental treatment

27. Non-experimental Methods
Non-equivalent Groups
Researcher compares groups
Researcher cannot control who goes into which group
Pre-test / Post-test
Individuals measured at two points in time
Researcher cannot control influence of the passage of time
Independent variable is quasi-independent

28. Figure 1.7 Two examples of non-experimental studies
Insert NEW Figure 1.7
FIGURE 1.7 Two examples of nonexperimental studies that involve comparing two groups of scores. In (a), a participant variable (gender) is used to create groups, and then the dependent variable (verbal score) is measured in each group. In (b), time is the variable used to define the two groups, and the dependent variable (depression) is measured at each of the two times.

29. Learning Check
Researchers observed that students exam scores were higher the more sleep they had the night before. This study is … A
Descriptive B
Experimental comparison of groups C
Non-experimental group comparison D
Correlational

30. Learning Check - Answer
Researchers observed that students exam scores were higher the more sleep they had the night before. This study is … A
Descriptive B
Experimental comparison of groups C
Non-experimental group comparison D
Correlational

31. Learning Check
Decide if each of the following statements is True or False.
T/F
All research methods have an independent variable
All research methods can show cause-and-effect relationships

32. Learning Check - Answer
False
Correlational methods do not need an independent variable
Only experiments control the influence of participants and environmental variables

33. 1.4 Variables and Measurement
Scores are obtained by observing and measuring variables that scientists use to help define and explain external behaviors
The process of measurement consists of applying carefully defined measurement procedures for each variable

34. Constructs & Operational Definitions
Internal attributes or characteristics that cannot be directly observed
Useful for describing and explaining behavior
Operational Definition
Identifies the set of operations required to measure an external (observable) behavior
Uses the resulting measurements as both a definition and a measurement of a hypothetical construct
Instructors may with to flag operational definition as a principle so important to behavioral science that it will re-appear in other courses such as research methods and experimental design.

35. Discrete and Continuous Variables
Discrete variable
Has separate, indivisible categories
No values can exist between two neighboring categories
Continuous variable
Have an infinite number of possible values between any two observed values
Every interval is divisible into an infinite number of equal parts
Discussing government statistics which report a fractional number of children in an “average” family is a humorous yet useful way of illustrating how discrete variables are fundamentally different from continuous variables.

36. Figure 1.8 Example: Continuous Measurement
FIGURE 1.8 When measuring weight to the nearest whole pound, and are assigned the value 150 (top). Any value in the interval between and is given the value of 150.

37. Real Limits of Continuous Variables
Real Limits are the boundaries of each interval representing scores measured on a continuous number line
The real limit separating two adjacent scores is exactly halfway between the two scores
Each score has two real limits
The upper real limit marks the top of the interval
The lower real limit marks the bottom of the interval
Some students struggle with real limits. Instructors may wish to insert an example with the measurement scale in 10ths (or 100ths) to help reinforce the importance of ½ score unit above and below the scale value of the measurement unit.

38. Scales of Measurement
Measurement assigns individuals or events to categories
The categories can simply be names such as male/female or employed/unemployed
They can be numerical values such as 68 inches or 175 pounds
The complete set of categories makes up a scale of measurement
Relationships between the categories determine different types of scales

39. Scales of Measurement Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio Scale
Characteristics
Examples
Nominal
Label and categorize
No quantitative distinctions
Gender
Diagnosis
Experimental or Control
Ordinal
Categorizes observations
Categories organized by size or magnitude
Rank in class
Clothing sizes (S,M,L,XL)
Olympic medals
Interval
Ordered categories
Interval between categories of equal size
Arbitrary or absent zero point
Temperature IQ
Golf scores (above/below par)
Ratio
Equal interval between categories
Absolute zero point
Number of correct answers
Time to complete task
Gain in height since last year
This material is arguably in the “Top Ten Most Important” concepts the students will encounter in the study of statistics and may merit identifying it as such.

40. Learning Check Continuous and ordinal Discrete and interval
A study assesses the optimal size (number of other members) for study groups. The variable “Size of group” is … A
Discrete and interval B
Continuous and ordinal C
Discrete and ratio D
Continuous and interval

41. Learning Check - Answer
A study assesses the optimal size (number of other members) for study groups. The variable “Size of group” is … A
Discrete and interval B
Continuous and ordinal C
Discrete and ratio D
Continuous and interval

42. Learning Check
Decide if each of the following statements is True or False.
T/F
Variables that cannot be measured directly cannot be studied scientifically
Research measurements are made using specific procedures that define constructs

43. Learning Check - Answer
False
Constructs (internal states) can only be observed indirectly, but can be operationally measured
True
Operational definitions assure consistent measurement and provide construct definitions

44. 1.5 Statistical Notation
Statistics uses operations and notation you have already learned
Appendix A has a Mathematical Review
Statistics also uses some specific notation
Scores are referred to as X (and Y)
N is the number of scores in a population
n is the number of scores in a sample
Students’ eyes often glaze over in this section. Remind them how difficult it is to make yourself understood if you do not speak the language in use by everyone else, and point out that they will experience the same difficulty and frustration in this course if they do not understand the “language” and symbols of statistics.

45. Summation Notation
Many statistical procedures sum (add up) a set of scores
The summation sign Σ stands for summation
The Σ is followed by a symbol or equation that defines what is to be summed
Summation is done after operations in parentheses, squaring, and multiplication or division.
Summation is done before other addition or subtraction

46. Learning Check instructs you to …
Square each score and add 47 to it, then sum those numbers B
Square each score, add up the squared scores, then add 47 to that sum C
Add 47 to each score, square the result, and sum those numbers D
Add up the scores, square that sum, and add 47 to it

47. Learning Check - Answer
instructs you to … A
Square each score and add 47 to it, then sum those numbers B
Square each score, add up the squared scores, then add 47 to that sum C
Add 47 to each score, square the result, and sum those numbers D
Add up the scores, square that sum, and add 47 to it

48. Learning Check
Decide if each of the following equations is True or False.
T/F

49. Learning Check - Answer
False
When the operations are performed in a different order, the results will be different
True
This is the definition of (ΣX)2

50. Any Questions?
Concepts?
Equations?