1. Thermochemistry Chapter 6

2. Energy is the capacity to do work Radiant energy comes from the sun and is earth’s primary energy source Thermal energy is the energy associated with the random motion of atoms and molecules Chemical energy is the energy stored within the bonds of chemical substances Nuclear energy is the energy stored within the collection of neutrons and protons in the atom Potential energy is the energy available by virtue of an object’s position 6.1

3. Heat is the transfer of thermal energy between two bodies that are at different temperatures. Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions Temperature is a measure of the thermal energy. 90 0 C 40 0 C greater thermal energy 6.2 Temperature = Thermal Energy

4. Thermochemistry is the study of heat change in chemical reactions. The system is the specific part of the universe that is of interest in the study. open mass & energyExchange: closed energy isolated nothing 6.2

5. Exothermic process is any process that gives off heat – transfers thermal energy from the system to the surroundings. Endothermic process is any process in which heat has to be supplied to the system from the surroundings. 2H 2 (g) + O 2 (g) 2H 2 O (l) + energy H 2 O (g) H 2 O (l) + energy energy + 2HgO (s) 2Hg (l) + O 2 (g) 6.2 energy + H 2 O (s) H 2 O (l)

6. Thermodynamics is the scientific study of the interconversion of heat and other kinds of energy. State functions are properties that are determined by the state of the system, regardless of how that condition was achieved. Potential energy of hiker 1 and hiker 2 is the same even though they took different paths. energy, pressure, volume, temperature 6.3  E = E final - E initial  P = P final - P initial  V = V final - V initial  T = T final - T initial

7. First law of thermodynamics – energy can be converted from one form to another, but cannot be created or destroyed.  E system +  E surroundings = 0 or  E system = -  E surroundings C 3 H 8 + 5O 2 3CO 2 + 4H 2 O Exothermic chemical reaction! 6.3 Chemical energy lost by combustion = Energy gained by the surroundings system surroundings

8. Enthalpy (H) is used to quantify the heat flow into or out of a system in a process that occurs at constant pressure.  H = H (products) – H (reactants)  H = heat given off or absorbed during a reaction at constant pressure H products < H reactants  H < 0 H products > H reactants  H > 0 6.4

9. Thermochemical Equations H 2 O (s) H 2 O (l)  H = 6.01 kJ Is  H negative or positive? System absorbs heat Endothermic  H > 0 6.01 kJ are absorbed for every 1 mole of ice that melts at 0 0 C and 1 atm. 6.4

10. Thermochemical Equations CH 4 (g) + 2O 2 (g) CO 2 (g) + 2H 2 O (l)  H = -890.4 kJ Is  H negative or positive? System gives off heat Exothermic  H < 0 890.4 kJ are released for every 1 mole of methane that is combusted at 25 0 C and 1 atm. 6.4

11. H 2 O (s) H 2 O (l)  H = 6.01 kJ The stoichiometric coefficients always refer to the number of moles of a substance Thermochemical Equations If you reverse a reaction, the sign of  H changes H 2 O (l) H 2 O (s)  H = - 6.01 kJ If you multiply both sides of the equation by a factor n, then  H must change by the same factor n. 2H 2 O (s) 2H 2 O (l)  H = 2 x 6.01 = 12.0 kJ 6.4

12. H 2 O (s) H 2 O (l)  H = 6.01 kJ The physical states of all reactants and products must be specified in thermochemical equations. Thermochemical Equations 6.4 H 2 O (l) H 2 O (g)  H = 44.0 kJ How much heat is evolved when 266 g of white phosphorus (P 4 ) burn in air? P 4 (s) + 5O 2 (g) P 4 O 10 (s)  H = -3013 kJ 266 g P 4 1 mol P 4 123.9 g P 4 x 3013 kJ 1 mol P 4 x = 6470 kJ

13. The specific heat (c p ) of a substance is the amount of heat (q) required to raise the temperature of one gram of the substance by one degree Celsius. The heat capacity (C) of a substance is the amount of heat (q) required to raise the temperature of a given quantity (m) of the substance by one degree Celsius. C = m x c p Heat (q) absorbed or released: q = m x c p x  T q = C x  T  T = T final - T initial 6.5

14. How much heat is given off when an 869 g iron bar cools from 94 0 C to 5 0 C? s of Fe = 0.444 J/g 0 C  t = t final – t initial = 5 0 C – 94 0 C = -89 0 C q = ms  t = 869 g x 0.444 J/g 0 C x –89 0 C= -34,000 J 6.5

15. Constant-Pressure Calorimetry No heat enters or leaves! q sys = q water + q cal + q rxn q sys = 0 q rxn = - (q water + q cal ) q water = m x s x  t q cal = C cal x  t 6.5 Reaction at Constant P  H = q rxn

16. Because there is no way to measure the absolute value of the enthalpy of a substance, must I measure the enthalpy change for every reaction of interest? Establish an arbitrary scale with the standard enthalpy of formation (  H 0 ) as a reference point for all enthalpy expressions. f Standard enthalpy of formation (  H 0 ) is the heat change that results when one mole of a compound is formed from its elements at a pressure of 1 atm. f The standard enthalpy of formation of any element in its most stable form is zero.  H 0 (O 2 ) = 0 f  H 0 (O 3 ) = 142 kJ/mol f  H 0 (C, graphite) = 0 f  H 0 (C, diamond) = 1.90 kJ/mol f 6.6

17. The enthalpy change required to break a particular bond in one mole of gaseous molecules is the bond energy. H 2 (g) H (g) +  H 0 = 436.4 kJ Cl 2 (g) Cl (g) +  H 0 = 242.7 kJ HCl (g) H (g) +Cl (g)  H 0 = 431.9 kJ O 2 (g) O (g) +  H 0 = 498.7 kJ OO N 2 (g) N (g) +  H 0 = 941.4 kJ N N Bond Energy Bond Energies Single bond < Double bond < Triple bond 9.10

18. Average bond energy in polyatomic molecules H 2 O (g) H (g) +OH (g)  H 0 = 502 kJ OH (g) H (g) +O (g)  H 0 = 427 kJ Average OH bond energy = 502 + 427 2 = 464 kJ 9.10

19. Bond Energies (BE) and Enthalpy changes in reactions  H 0 = total energy input – total energy released =  BE(reactants) –  BE(products) Imagine reaction proceeding by breaking all bonds in the reactants and then using the gaseous atoms to form all the bonds in the products. 9.10

20. H 2 (g) + Cl 2 (g) 2HCl (g)2H 2 (g) + O 2 (g) 2H 2 O (g)

21. Use bond energies to calculate the enthalpy change for: H 2 (g) + F 2 (g) 2HF (g)  H 0 =  BE(reactants) –  BE(products) Type of bonds broken Number of bonds broken Bond energy (kJ/mol) Energy change (kJ) HH1436.4 FF 1156.9 Type of bonds formed Number of bonds formed Bond energy (kJ/mol) Energy change (kJ) HF2568.21136.4  H 0 = 436.4 + 156.9 – 2 x 568.2 = -543.1 kJ 9.10

22. Topic 15 – Year 2 Energetics HL

23. The standard enthalpy of reaction (  H 0 ) is the enthalpy of a reaction carried out at 1 atm. rxn aA + bB cC + dD H0H0 rxn d  H 0 (D) f c  H 0 (C) f = [+] - b  H 0 (B) f a  H 0 (A) f [+] H0H0 rxn n  H 0 (products) f =  m  H 0 (reactants) f  - 6.6 Hess’s Law: When reactants are converted to products, the change in enthalpy is the same whether the reaction takes place in one step or in a series of steps. (Enthalpy is a state function. It doesn’t matter how you get there, only where you start and end.)

24. C (graphite) + 1/2O 2 (g) CO (g) CO (g) + 1/2O 2 (g) CO 2 (g) C (graphite) + O 2 (g) CO 2 (g) 6.6

25. Calculate the standard enthalpy of formation of CS 2 (l) given that: C (graphite) + O 2 (g) CO 2 (g)  H 0 = -393.5 kJ rxn S (rhombic) + O 2 (g) SO 2 (g)  H 0 = -296.1 kJ rxn CS 2 (l) + 3O 2 (g) CO 2 (g) + 2SO 2 (g)  H 0 = -1072 kJ rxn 1. Write the enthalpy of formation reaction for CS 2 C (graphite) + 2S (rhombic) CS 2 (l) 2. Add the given rxns so that the result is the desired rxn. rxn C (graphite) + O 2 (g) CO 2 (g)  H 0 = -393.5 kJ 2S (rhombic) + 2O 2 (g) 2SO 2 (g)  H 0 = -296.1x2 kJ rxn CO 2 (g) + 2SO 2 (g) CS 2 (l) + 3O 2 (g)  H 0 = +1072 kJ rxn + C (graphite) + 2S (rhombic) CS 2 (l)  H 0 = -393.5 + (2x-296.1) + 1072 = 86.3 kJ rxn 6.6

26. Benzene (C 6 H 6 ) burns in air to produce carbon dioxide and liquid water. How much heat is released per mole of benzene combusted? The standard enthalpy of formation of benzene is 49.04 kJ/mol. 2C 6 H 6 (l) + 15O 2 (g) 12CO 2 (g) + 6H 2 O (l) H0H0 rxn n  H 0 (products) f =  m  H 0 (reactants) f  - H0H0 rxn 6  H 0 (H 2 O) f 12  H 0 (CO 2 ) f = [+] - 2  H 0 (C 6 H 6 ) f [] H0H0 rxn = [ 12x–393.5 + 6x–187.6 ] – [ 2x49.04 ] = -5946 kJ -5946 kJ 2 mol = - 2973 kJ/mol C 6 H 6 6.6

27. 9.3 Lattice energy (E) increases as Q increases and/or as r decreases. cmpd lattice energy MgF 2 MgO LiF LiCl 2957 3938 1036 853 Q= +2,-1 Q= +2,-2 r F - < r Cl - Electrostatic (Lattice) Energy E = k Q+Q-Q+Q- r Q + is the charge on the cation Q - is the charge on the anion r is the distance between the ions Lattice energy (E) is the energy required to completely separate one mole of a solid ionic compound into gaseous ions.

28. 9.3 Born-Haber Cycle for Determining Lattice Energy  H overall =  H 1 +  H 2 +  H 3 +  H 4 +  H 5 oooooo

29. 9.3

30. Spontaneous Physical and Chemical Processes A waterfall runs downhill A lump of sugar dissolves in a cup of coffee At 1 atm, water freezes below 0 0 C and ice melts above 0 0 C Heat flows from a hotter object to a colder object A gas expands in an evacuated bulb Iron exposed to oxygen and water forms rust spontaneous nonspontaneous 18.2

31. Introduction to Entropy Spontaneous physical changes are easy to predict. A dropped glass will fall to the ground once it is released. The reverse of a spontaneous event, like water flowing up a waterfall, will not occur except perhaps in the world of special effects for movies. The probability of finding a highly ordered situation (e.g., a deck of cards in order) is much lower than a highly disordered one (in which the cards are random). Chemical reactions or events are driven toward spontaneity by the energetics of the process. Water will boil if heated to 100 °C at 1 atm. Gas particles in one chamber will flow into an empty one (see figure: (a) is spontaneous while (b) is not).

32. Does a decrease in enthalpy mean a reaction proceeds spontaneously? CH 4 (g) + 2O 2 (g) CO 2 (g) + 2H 2 O (l)  H 0 = -890.4 kJ H + (aq) + OH - (aq) H 2 O (l)  H 0 = -56.2 kJ H 2 O (s) H 2 O (l)  H 0 = 6.01 kJ NH 4 NO 3 (s) NH 4 + (aq) + NO 3 - (aq)  H 0 = 25 kJ H2OH2O Spontaneous reactions 18.2

33. Entropy (S) is a measure of the randomness or disorder of a system. orderS disorder S  S = S f - S i If the change from initial to final results in an increase in randomness S f > S i  S > 0 For any substance, the solid state is more ordered than the liquid state and the liquid state is more ordered than gas state S solid < S liquid << S gas H 2 O (s) H 2 O (l)  S > 0 18.3

34. Processes that lead to an increase in entropy (  S > 0) 18.2

35. How does the entropy of a system change for each of the following processes? (a) Condensing water vapor Randomness decreases Entropy decreases (  S < 0) (b) Forming sucrose crystals from a supersaturated solution Randomness decreases Entropy decreases (  S < 0) (c) Heating hydrogen gas from 60 0 C to 80 0 C Randomness increases Entropy increases (  S > 0) (d) Subliming dry ice Randomness increases Entropy increases (  S > 0) 18.3

36. Entropy State functions are properties that are determined by the state of the system, regardless of how that condition was achieved. Potential energy of hiker 1 and hiker 2 is the same even though they took different paths. energy, enthalpy, pressure, volume, temperature, entropy 18.3

37. First Law of Thermodynamics Energy can be converted from one form to another but energy cannot be created or destroyed. Second Law of Thermodynamics The entropy of the universe increases in a spontaneous process and remains unchanged in an equilibrium process.  S univ =  S sys +  S surr > 0 Spontaneous process:  S univ =  S sys +  S surr = 0 Equilibrium process: 18.4

38. Entropy Changes in the System (  S sys ) aA + bB cC + dD S0S0 rxn dS 0 (D) cS 0 (C) = [+] - bS 0 (B) aS 0 (A) [+] S0S0 rxn nS 0 (products) =  mS 0 (reactants)  - The standard entropy of reaction (  S 0 ) is the entropy change for a reaction carried out at 1 atm and 25 0 C. rxn 18.4 What is the standard entropy change for the following reaction at 25 0 C? 2CO (g) + O 2 (g) 2CO 2 (g) S 0 (CO) = 197.9 J/K mol S 0 (O 2 ) = 205.0 J/K mol S 0 (CO 2 ) = 213.6 J/K mol S0S0 rxn = 2 x S 0 (CO 2 ) – [2 x S 0 (CO) + S 0 (O 2 )] S0S0 rxn = 427.2 – [395.8 + 205.0] = -173.6 J/K mol

39. Entropy Changes in the System (  S sys ) 18.4 When gases are produced (or consumed) If a reaction produces more gas molecules than it consumes,  S 0 > 0. If the total number of gas molecules diminishes,  S 0 < 0. If there is no net change in the total number of gas molecules, then  S 0 may be positive or negative BUT  S 0 will be a small number. What is the sign of the entropy change for the following reaction? 2Zn (s) + O 2 (g) 2ZnO (s) The total number of gas molecules goes down,  S is negative.

40.  S univ =  S sys +  S surr > 0 Spontaneous process:  S univ =  S sys +  S surr = 0 Equilibrium process: Gibbs Free Energy For a constant-temperature process:  G =  H sys -T  S sys Gibbs free energy (G)  G < 0 The reaction is spontaneous in the forward direction.  G > 0 The reaction is nonspontaneous as written. The reaction is spontaneous in the reverse direction.  G = 0 The reaction is at equilibrium. 18.5

41. aA + bB cC + dD G0G0 rxn d  G 0 (D) f c  G 0 (C) f = [+] - b  G 0 (B) f a  G 0 (A) f [+] G0G0 rxn n  G 0 (products) f =  m  G 0 (reactants) f  - The standard free-energy of reaction (  G 0 ) is the free- energy change for a reaction when it occurs under standard- state conditions. rxn Standard free energy of formation (  G 0 ) is the free-energy change that occurs when 1 mole of the compound is formed from its elements in their standard states. f  G 0 of any element in its stable form is zero. f

42. 2C 6 H 6 (l) + 15O 2 (g) 12CO 2 (g) + 6H 2 O (l) G0G0 rxn n  G 0 (products) f =  m  G 0 (reactants) f  - What is the standard free-energy change for the following reaction at 25 0 C? G0G0 rxn 6  G 0 (H 2 O) f 12  G 0 (CO 2 ) f = [+] - 2  G 0 (C 6 H 6 ) f [] G0G0 rxn = [ 12x–394.4 + 6x–237.2 ] – [ 2x124.5 ] = -6405 kJ Is the reaction spontaneous at 25 0 C?  G 0 = -6405 kJ < 0 spontaneous 18.5

43.  G =  H - T  S 18.5