1. Job Design, Work Methods & Organization

2. A. Job Design B. Methods Analysis & Improvement C. Work Standards D. Work Observation & Measurement E. Work Environment F. Organization Of Work G. Learning & Experience Curves

3. A. Job Design Job Job set of tasks & responsibilities of workerset of tasks & responsibilities of worker Job description Job description taskstasks responsibilitiesresponsibilities performance expectationsperformance expectations work conditions (time/place)work conditions (time/place) general skillsgeneral skills

4. Job Content Specialization & task variety Specialization & task variety Job enlargement Job enlargement Job enrichment Job enrichment Job rotation Job rotation Cross-training Cross-training Customer focus Customer focus

5. Job Specialization Advantages Advantages workers can develop greater skills & establish work rhythm which increases productivityworkers can develop greater skills & establish work rhythm which increases productivity lower level of basic skills required, lower wages lower level of basic skills required, lower wages easier to train & supervise workerseasier to train & supervise workers Disadvantages Disadvantages monotonous & boring work, absenteeism, poor qualitymonotonous & boring work, absenteeism, poor quality no worker control & autonomy over workno worker control & autonomy over work scheduling flexibility is limited, hard to move staffscheduling flexibility is limited, hard to move staff

6. Job Enlargement & Enrichment

7. Responsibility For Quality & Process Improvement Workers are becoming more responsible for quality Workers are becoming more responsible for quality Part of job enrichment Part of job enrichment Consider during job design Consider during job design Workers know products & processes Workers know products & processes Key source of improvement Key source of improvement

8. Automation Use of mechanical or electrical machinery to perform tasks usually done by workers Use of mechanical or electrical machinery to perform tasks usually done by workers Machines best suited for tasks Machines best suited for tasks which are well-structured and repetitivewhich are well-structured and repetitive needing considerable force or speedneeding considerable force or speed performed in dangerous or uncomfortable conditionsperformed in dangerous or uncomfortable conditions requiring intricate sensingrequiring intricate sensing

9. Automation Advantages Advantages productivity productivity uniformityuniformity qualityquality workers avoid hazardous, monotonous jobsworkers avoid hazardous, monotonous jobs Disadvantages Disadvantages cost of machinerycost of machinery limited flexibilitylimited flexibility lack of feedback to improve processlack of feedback to improve process

10. B. Methods Analysis & Improvement Identifying & implementing good work methods means Identifying & implementing good work methods means observing work & measuring efficiencyobserving work & measuring efficiency analyzing existing work methodsanalyzing existing work methods applying good work methods principlesapplying good work methods principles instituting & utilizing work aids & good ergonomic designinstituting & utilizing work aids & good ergonomic design training employeestraining employees

11. Methods Analysis Analytic approach to task choices & performance methods Analytic approach to task choices & performance methods Includes: Includes: system & subsystem analysissystem & subsystem analysis worker & task-level analysisworker & task-level analysis worker-machine coordinationworker-machine coordination group coordinationgroup coordination

12. System & Subsystem Analysis Use process flow diagram & process chart Use process flow diagram & process chart Answer Answer what is done & whywhat is done & why when in process is task donewhen in process is task done where is task donewhere is task done how is task donehow is task done who does taskwho does task

13. Worker & Task-level Analysis Focus on worker & tasks they perform Focus on worker & tasks they perform Taylor’s method Taylor’s method identify most productive workeridentify most productive worker teach their methods to all workersteach their methods to all workers Gilbreths’ method Gilbreths’ method study fundamental motionsstudy fundamental motions identify best way to perform motionsidentify best way to perform motions develop overall proceduredevelop overall procedure

14. Simo Chart -Assemble 3 Washers & Bolt Left handRight hand TLCarry assy to binTLReach for washer RLRelease assySL/GSelect & grasp washer TL Reach for bolt TLCarry washer to bolt SL/GSelect & grasp boltPPosition washer TLCarry bolt A/RLPut washer on bolt & release PPosition boltTEReach for steel washer H Hold bolt SL/GSelect & grasp washer TLCarry assy to binTLCarry washer to bolt TLRelease assyPPosition washer A/RLAss. steel washer & release TEReach for rubber washer SL/GSelect & grasp washer TLCarry washer to bolt PPosition washer A/RLAssemble washer & release

15. Worker-machine Coordination Most jobs involve machines Most jobs involve machines Worker-machine chart shows worker & machine activities Worker-machine chart shows worker & machine activities If worker idle If worker idle add tasksadd tasks add machinesadd machines If machine idle If machine idle reduce machines tended by workerreduce machines tended by worker reduce number of tasksreduce number of tasks

16. Worker-Machine Chart Machine operatorTime (min)Press Time (min) Setup machine (642A)20 Idle- being set up20 Load blanks in feeder5 Idle 5 Start-up10 Stamping10 Semi-idle, monitoring15 Stamping 15 Remove finished parts5 Idle 5 Load blanks in feeder5 Idle 5 Semi-idle, monitoring20 Stamping 20 Remove finished parts5 Idle 5 Remove scrap10 Idle10 Setup machine (811E)15 Idle- being set up15 Idle waiting for blanks4Idle 4 Load blanks in feeder4 Idle 4 Start-up9 Stamping9

17. Summary Of Chart OperatorMachine Idle/semi-idle61 minIdle 109 min Working120 min Working72 min Utilization120/181=66.3% Utilization 39.8% Elapsed time for 642A = 95 min Elapsed time for 811E = 62 min

18. Revised Worker-Machine Chart Machine operatorTime (min)Press Time (min) Setup machine (642A)12 Idle- being set up12 Load blanks in feeder5 Idle 5 Start-up10 Stamping10 Find & transport (811E)8 Semi-idle, monitoring7 Stamping 15 Remove finished parts5 Idle 5 Load blanks in feeder5 Idle 5 Prepare for next set-up10 Remove scrap 10 Stamping20 Remove finished parts5 Idle 5 Setup machine (811E)7 Idle- being set up7 Load blanks in feeder4 Idle 4 Start-up9 Stamping9

19. Summary Of Chart OperatorMachine Idle/semi-idle7 minIdle 60 min Working125 min Working72 min Utilization94.7%Utilization 54.5% Elapsed time for 642A = 77 min Elapsed time for 811E = 43 min

20. Group Coordination Improve efficiency by improving teamwork Improve efficiency by improving teamwork Team-activity chart documents process Team-activity chart documents process Use to study process & make changes Use to study process & make changes

21. Team-activity Chart Worker 1Time (sec)Worker 2Time (sec) Take order25Idle25 Collect payment (C 1)20Gather food (C 1)20 Idle15Fill drink (C 1)15 Take order (C 2)20Gather food (C 1) 20 Idle10Bag food (C 1)10 Check food (C 1)5 Collect payment (C 2)20Gather food (C 2)25 Take order (C 3)25Fill drink (C 2)30 Collect payment (C3)25Gather food (C2)20 Idle10Bag food (C2)10 Check food (C2)5Gather food (C3)45............ 310 seconds to serve 4 customers

22. Revised Team-activity Chart Worker 1Time (sec)Worker 2Time (sec) Take order25Idle25 Collect payment (C 1)20Gather food (C 1)20 Fill drink (C 1)15Idle waiting for food 10 Take order (C 2)20Gather food (C 1) 20 Idle5Bag food (C 1) 10 Check food (C 1)5 Collect payment (C 2)20Gather food (C 2)25 Fill drink (C 2)30Gather food (C 2) 20 Bag food (C2) 10 Check food (C2)5 Take order (C 3)25Idle30... 280 seconds to serve 4 customers

23. Simple Principles Of Job Design Coprocessing Coprocessing Back-hauling Back-hauling Designing human activities to be compatible with the human body Designing human activities to be compatible with the human body Continuous improvement & worker consultation Continuous improvement & worker consultation

24. Principles of Human Motion Using human body the way it works best Using human body the way it works best 1. Arrange work to provide natural rhythm 2. Consider symmetric nature of body simultaneous arm motionsimultaneous arm motion opposite & symmetrical arm motionopposite & symmetrical arm motion 3. Employ full capabilities of body neither hand should ever be idleneither hand should ever be idle distribute work to other parts of bodydistribute work to other parts of body observe safe design limits of bodyobserve safe design limits of body employ humans at “highest” useemploy humans at “highest” use

25. 4. Arms & hands as weights are subject to physical laws & energy should be conserved momentum should work for peoplemomentum should work for people smooth continuous ballistic arc is most efficientsmooth continuous ballistic arc is most efficient minimize movement distancesminimize movement distances task should be done by machinestask should be done by machines 5. Simplify tasks eye contacts should be few & grouped togethereye contacts should be few & grouped together eliminate unnecessary actions, delays, idle timeeliminate unnecessary actions, delays, idle time reduce degree of control & precisionreduce degree of control & precision minimize individual motions & number of muscle groups involvedminimize individual motions & number of muscle groups involved

26. Arranging workplace to assist performance Arranging workplace to assist performance 1. Definite place for all tools & materials 2. Locate tools, materials & controls close to point of use 3. Locate tools, materials & controls for best sequence & path of motion 4. Gravity feed bins deliver items close to point of use 5. Workplace should be fitted to task and humans Using Mechanical devices to reduce human effort Using Mechanical devices to reduce human effort 1. Vises & clamps hold work precisely where needed 2. Guides can assist in positioning work without close worker care 3. Controls & foot-operated devices can relieve hands of work 4. Mechanical devices can multiply human ability 5. Mechanical systems should be fitted to human use

27. Work Aids & Ergonomics Using tools & equipment to reduce human effort & improve performance Using tools & equipment to reduce human effort & improve performance Ergonomics Ergonomics design tools & work area to increase productivity while reducing stress, injury & fatiguedesign tools & work area to increase productivity while reducing stress, injury & fatigue design gauges to be easy to readdesign gauges to be easy to read prevent carpal tunnel syndromeprevent carpal tunnel syndrome Arrange workplace for convenience Arrange workplace for convenience Poka-Yoke: mistake proofing Poka-Yoke: mistake proofing

28. Training Employees must be trained well Employees must be trained well Training is an investment, not an expense Training is an investment, not an expense Change is constant so re-training is needed Change is constant so re-training is needed Benefits accrue to firm for years Benefits accrue to firm for years

29. C. Work Standards Work standards specify output or time for task Work standards specify output or time for task Standard time is time for normal worker to perform task considering breaks, delays, etc. Standard time is time for normal worker to perform task considering breaks, delays, etc. Uses of standard time & work standards Uses of standard time & work standards employee evaluation & compensationemployee evaluation & compensation personnel & production schedulingpersonnel & production scheduling product costing & pricingproduct costing & pricing process design & capacity planningprocess design & capacity planning

30. D. Work Observation & Measurement Motion & time study Motion & time study Elemental standard-time data Elemental standard-time data Micro-motion & predetermined motion-time data Micro-motion & predetermined motion-time data Work sampling Work sampling

31. Motion & Time Study Formalized process to observe & time worker Formalized process to observe & time worker Low cost, flexible, adaptable Low cost, flexible, adaptable Workers may change behavior when observed Workers may change behavior when observed Record running time on data sheet Record running time on data sheet

32. Time Study Data Sheet Work cycle Step1210TotMeanPR NTST AR0:162:00...18:20 T1615...16169 16.911018.620.82 BR0:402:22...18:42 T2422...2223923.910525.126.77 CR1:022:46...19:11 T2224...2923623.610524.827.78 DR1:303:15...19:38 T2829...2726526.510026.529.68 ER1:453:31...19:54 T1516...1616116.111017.71 19.82

33. Using Time-Study Data To Compute Standard Times standard time = normal time x (1+ allowances) where normal time = average observed time x performance rating or normal time = total elemental task time or total predetermined task time and allowances = time allowances for unavoidable delays (breakdowns, personal, fatigue) expressed as fraction of total work time

34. Example Continued Average observed task time = 16.9 seconds Estimated performance rating (PR) = 110% Normal time = 16.9 * 1.10 = 18.59 seconds Allowances = 12% of normal working time Standard time = 18.59 x (1+0.12)= 20.82 seconds

35. Elemental standard-time data Elemental standard-time data use historic data from firmuse historic data from firm more accurate, workers average outmore accurate, workers average out avoid cost & disruption of actual time studiesavoid cost & disruption of actual time studies Micro-motion & predetermined motion time data Micro-motion & predetermined motion time data decompose tasks into basic movements, therbligsdecompose tasks into basic movements, therbligs Methods time measurement (MTM) has tabulated times for therbligsMethods time measurement (MTM) has tabulated times for therbligs useful for structured, repetitive jobsuseful for structured, repetitive jobs

36. Work Sampling Estimate percent of time spent on wide variety of tasks Estimate percent of time spent on wide variety of tasks Take random observations over time Take random observations over time Easy & inexpensive to perform Easy & inexpensive to perform Can be used to develop time standards Can be used to develop time standards

37. Work Sampling Procedure Identify purpose of study Identify purpose of study Compute number of observations Compute number of observations e = maximum absolute error z = 1.96 for 95% confidence level Determine when & how to observe Determine when & how to observe

38. Sample Size Example Estimate proportion of time spent waiting on customers to within 0.03 of the actual proportion with 95% confidence. Currently believe the actual proportion = 0.40. Estimate proportion of time spent waiting on customers to within 0.03 of the actual proportion with 95% confidence. Currently believe the actual proportion = 0.40. N = [1.96 2 (0.40)(1-0.40)]/(0.03) 2 = 1024 N = [1.96 2 (0.40)(1-0.40)]/(0.03) 2 = 1024

39. Timing Observations 50 observations during 8 hour day 50 observations during 8 hour day Generate random numbers on computer Generate random numbers on computer Multiply by 480 minutes per day Multiply by 480 minutes per day Resulting value is time to observe Resulting value is time to observe Random number = 0.2946 Random number = 0.2946 Time = 0.2946 x 480 = 141.4 minutes after shift begins Time = 0.2946 x 480 = 141.4 minutes after shift begins

40. E. Work Environment Environmental factors affecting worker performance Environmental factors affecting worker performance cleanlinesscleanliness illuminationillumination temperature & humiditytemperature & humidity noise & soundnoise & sound

41. Safety & Health Key consideration of job design Key consideration of job design Dangerous & unhealthy environments reduce productivity Dangerous & unhealthy environments reduce productivity Also costly to company Also costly to company accidentsaccidents work disruptionswork disruptions disability claimsdisability claims safety violationssafety violations lawsuitslawsuits

42. Accidents Caused by unsafe acts or unsafe conditions Caused by unsafe acts or unsafe conditions Collect & analyze existing data Collect & analyze existing data Observe workers Observe workers Eliminate or reduce hazards Eliminate or reduce hazards Signs on specific safe behaviors are effective Signs on specific safe behaviors are effective Wash your handsWash your hands Keep safety guard in placeKeep safety guard in place General signs are not effective General signs are not effective Be alert, Be safeBe alert, Be safe

43. F. Organization Of Work Sociotechnical systems Sociotechnical systems create compatibility among workers, equipment & technologycreate compatibility among workers, equipment & technology more productive systems resultmore productive systems result Organized around autonomous work groups Organized around autonomous work groups self-directed work teamsself-directed work teams

44. Benefits Of Autonomous Groups Job satisfaction Job satisfaction Process improvement Process improvement Product quality Product quality Productivity improvement & cost reduction Productivity improvement & cost reduction Flexibility & responsiveness Flexibility & responsiveness

45. Job Flexibility In Time & Location Working at home Working at home save on office & work spacesave on office & work space save commuting time, more productive work timesave commuting time, more productive work time employees who can’t work fixed schedules can work at homeemployees who can’t work fixed schedules can work at home Flex-time Flex-time easier to care for children & errandseasier to care for children & errands arrange commuting to avoid traffic jamsarrange commuting to avoid traffic jams people work better at different times of the daypeople work better at different times of the day

46. Compensation & Incentives Time-based compensation systems Time-based compensation systems easy for employereasy for employer many employees prefer the securitymany employees prefer the security no incentive for individual maximum performanceno incentive for individual maximum performance many jobs don’t fit output based systemsmany jobs don’t fit output based systems Output-based compensation systems Output-based compensation systems pay according to amount & quality of workpay according to amount & quality of work good when amount of work can be measuredgood when amount of work can be measured

47. Incentive compensation systems Incentive compensation systems reward employees for effortsreward employees for efforts Scanlon plansScanlon plans Lincoln planLincoln plan gain sharinggain sharing Company profitability becoming new basis for incentive plans Company profitability becoming new basis for incentive plans

48. Unions Active in Active in job designjob design work rules & organizationwork rules & organization safety & healthsafety & health Management-union partnerships developing Management-union partnerships developing Unions cooperate if treated as equals Unions cooperate if treated as equals

49. G. Learning & Experience Curves As number of units produced increases, the time to produce units decreases As number of units produced increases, the time to produce units decreases Refer to x% learning rate (curve) if labor for 2nth unit is x% of time for nth unit Refer to x% learning rate (curve) if labor for 2nth unit is x% of time for nth unit

50. Learning Curves

51. Computing Time For Nth Unit T n = T 1 x n a where T n = time to make nth unit T 1 = time to make 1st unit a = ln x/ln 2 x = learning rate expressed as a decimal Tables of T n and total time for n units exist

52. Learning & Experience Curve Factors Learning rate 70%80%90% UnitUnitTotalUnitTotalUnitTotal 11.0001.0001.0001.0001.0001.000 20.7001.7000.8001.8000.9001.900 30.5682.2680.7022.5020.8462.746 40.4902.7580.6403.1420.8103.556 50.4373.1950.5963.7380.7834.339 60.3983.5930.5624.2990.7625.101 70.3673.9600.5344.8340.7445.845 80.3434.3030.5125.3460.7296.574 90.3234.6260.4935.8390.7167.290 100.3064.9320.4776.3150.7057.994

53. Example T 1 = 20 hours T 2 = 16 hours T 4 = 12.8 hours 80% learning curve exists T 3 = 20 x [3 (ln 0.8/ln 2) ] = 14.04 person-hr Table shows T 3 unit time for 3rd unit = 0.702 So 20 x 0.702 = 14.04

54. Deriving A Learning Curve Collect production time data Collect production time data Plot data Plot data Use non-linear regression to compute learning rate Use non-linear regression to compute learning rate Or use approximate method Or use approximate method

55. Actual Labor Content

56. Learning Curve Calculation UnitLabor ContentRatio of labor content no(person-hr)n2nFor items 2n & n 1412426/34=0.765 2343624/29=0.828 3294821/26=0.808 426 524Average = 0.807 624Approximately 80% so use 80% 723for future calculations 821

57. Choice of production units Choice of production units unit of production might be 1000 or 1,000,000 actual unitsunit of production might be 1000 or 1,000,000 actual units base curve on meaningful, observable quantitiesbase curve on meaningful, observable quantities Forgetting Forgetting workers can forget (lose) their skillsworkers can forget (lose) their skills caused by interruptions in production processcaused by interruptions in production process

58. Curve With Discrete Changes

59. Experience Curves Other factors contribute to cost reduction Other factors contribute to cost reduction process & equipment improvementsprocess & equipment improvements better management & information flowsbetter management & information flows Experience curves apply to entire organization Experience curves apply to entire organization Apply like learning curve Apply like learning curve Derive separately from learning curve Derive separately from learning curve Use strategically to undercut competition Use strategically to undercut competition