1. FINANCIAL ECONOMETRIC Financial econometrics is the econometrics of financial markets Econometrics is a mixture of economics, mathematics and statistics

3. Financial econometric models describe the financial time series data of prices, returns, interest rates, financial ratios, exchange rate, etc. Financial econometric techniques are regression analysis, correlation, simultaneous equation, structural equation, panel data analysis, co integration, autoregressive integrated moving average, vector autoregressive, autoregressive conditional heteroscedasticity, value at risk Application of financial econometrics includes four parts: Structure analysis Forecasting or predicting Policy comments Verifying and developing economic and financial theory.

4. Structure analysis studies the relations between economic or financial variables, which exists in different structures such as industrial structure, consumption structure, investment structure and so on. It also studies the influence of change of one or some variables on others or whole economic or financial system by using the elastic analysis, multiplier analysis and comparative static analysis. Econometrics can be used to either analyze the historic data or forecasting or both the future.

5. Policy comment is to choose the better policy among many different policies to implement, or study the influence of different policies on economic or financial targets. There are three approaches to do so, in which the economic or financial target is used as the dependent variable of economic model and the policy as a explanatory variable. 1. Given the expected value of economic or financial target, the value of policy variable could be obtained by resolving the model. 2. Calculate respective value of target by inputting different policy variables and choose the better policy to implement. 3. Choose the policy which leads to the optimized target by combing the econometric model and optimizing methods.

6. Verifying and developing economic or financial theory There are two functions of econometric model. One is to verify the theory; that is, constructing the model using certain theory and then apply the historic sample data to fit the model; if the fit is good, the theory is confirmed. Another is to discover and develop theory; using data to fit many kinds of econometric model you can imagine. The relations revealed by the econometric model with the best fit are just the law that the economic behavior follows.

7. Methodology of Econometrics Broadly speaking, econometric methodology proceeds along the following lines: 1. Statement of economic theory 2. Specification of the econometric model of the theory 3. Obtaining the data 4. Estimation of the parameters of the econometric model 5. Hypothesis testing 6. Forecasting or prediction 7. Using the model for control or policy purposes To illustrate these steps, let us consider the well-known Keynesian theory of consumption.

8. 1.Statement of Theory Keynes stated: The fundamental psychological law is that men [women] are disposed, as a rule and on average, to increase their consumption as their income increases, but not as much as the increase in their income. 2.Specification of the Mathematical Model A mathematical form of the Keynesian consumption function: y = β 1 + β 2 x0< β 2 <1 where y = consumption expenditure and x = income, and where β 1 and β 2, known as the parameters of the model, are, respectively, the intercept and slope coefficients.

9. 3.Specification of the Econometric Model To allow for the inexact relationships between economic variables, the econometrician would modify the deterministic consumption function as follows: y = β 1 + β 2 x + ε where ε, known as the disturbance, or error term, is a random (stochastic) variable that has well-defined probabilistic properties. The disturbance term ε may well represent all those factors that affect consumption but are not taken into account explicitly. For example, the data for the period 1981–1996 reported in Table 1. The data are plotted in the following Figure.

11. 5.Estimation of the Econometric Model Next task is to estimate the parameters of the consumption function. The numerical estimates of the parameters give empirical content to the consumption function. Using econometric technique and the given data, we obtain the following estimates of β 1 and β 2, namely, −184.08 and 0.7064. Thus, the estimated consumption function is: y= −184.08 + 0.7064 x The estimated consumption function (i.e., regression line) is shown in above Figure.

12. 6.Hypothesis Testing: Four tests before forecast: 1.Economic meaning test: Investigate the sign, magnitude of the estimator of parameter of the model. As earlier, Keynes expected the MPC to be positive but less than 1. Here, we found the MPC to be about 0.70. 2.Statistical test: Include the goodness of fit, significant test of the parameters and the function. To accept this finding as confirmation of Keynesian consumption theory, we must enquire whether this estimate is sufficiently below unity to convince us that this is not a chance occurrence or peculiarity of the particular data we have used. In other words, is 0.70 statistically less than 1? If it is, it may support Keynes’ theory.

13. We have to develop suitable criteria to find out whether the estimates are in accord with the expectations of the theory that is being tested. Such confirmation or refutation of economic theories on the basis of sample evidence is based on a branch of statistical theory known as statistical inference. Throughout this course we shall see how this inference process is actually conducted. 3.Econometric test: multicolinearity, heteroscedasticity, and autocorrelation 4.Forecast test: Cross validation

14. 7.Forecasting or Prediction If the chosen model does not refute the underlying hypothesis or theory, then we may use it to predict the future value(s) of the dependent variable y on the basis of known or expected future value(s) of the explanatory, or predictor, variable x. To illustrate, suppose we want to predict the mean consumption expenditure for 1997. The GDP value for 1997 was 7269.8 billion dollars. Putting this GDP figure on the right-hand side of the equation, we obtain: y 1997 = −184.08 + 0.7064 x 7269.8 = 9451.3167

15. 8.Use of the Model for Policy Purposes If the above regression results seems to be reasonable, simple arithmetic will show that 4900 = −184.08 + 0.7064 x Which gives x = 7197, approximately. It means that for the given an MPC of about 0.70, and for achieving an expenditure of 4900 billion dollars, the economic will require an income level of about 7197 (billion) dollars. Regression analysis is concerned with the study of the dependence of one variable on one or more other variables is called the explanatory variables, with a view to estimating and/or predicting the (population) mean or average value of the former in terms of the known or fixed (in repeated sampling) values of the latter.

16. Terminology Dependent variable explanatory variable Explained variable independent variable Predictand predictor Regressand regressor Response stimulus Endogenous exogenous Outcome covariate Target (controlled) variable control variable Output input

17. Types of Data: time series, cross-section, and pooled (i.e., combination of time series and cross-section) or panel data. Time Series Data A time series is a set of observations on the values that a variable takes at different times. Such data may be collected at regular time intervals, such as daily (e.g., stock prices), weekly (e.g., money supply figures), monthly (e.g., Consumer Price Index), quarterly (e.g., GDP), annually (e.g., government budgets), decennially (e.g., the census of population). The data shown in Table are an example of time series data. Although time series data are used heavily in econometric studies, they present special problems for econometricians such as autocorrelation, non-stationarity etc.

18. Cross-Section Data Cross-section data are data on one or more variables collected at the same point in time, such as the census of population conducted by the Census Bureau every 10 years (the latest being in year 2000), the surveys of consumer expenditures conducted by the Research organizations. Just as time series data create their own special problems, cross-sectional data too have their own problems, specifically the problem of heterogeneity. Pooled Data In pooled, or combined, data are elements of both time series and cross-section data. The data in Table are an example of pooled data. Panel, Longitudinal, or Micropanel Data

20. Linear Regression Model: Assumptions underlying the method of least squares Assumption 1: The regression model is linear in parameters i.e. Y i = β 1 + β 2 X i + u i Assumption 2: X values are fixed in repeated sampling. Values taken by the regressor X are considered fixed in repeated samples. More technically, X is assumed to be nonstochastic. Assumption 3: Zero mean value of disturbance ui. Given the value of X, the mean or expected value of random disturbance term u i is zero. Technically, the conditional mean value of u i is zero. Symbolically, E(u i |X i ) = 0

21. Assumption 4: Homoscedasticity or equal variance of u i. Given the value of X, the variance of u i is the same for all observations. That is, the conditional variances of u i are identical. Symbolically, Var(u i |X i ) = E(u i 2 |X i ) = σ 2

22. In contrast to the conditional variances of Y population varies with X. This situation is known as heteroscedasticity or unequal variance. Symbolically, Var(u i |X i ) = σ i 2

23. Assumption 5: No autocorrelation between the disturbances. Given any two X values, X i and X j (i ≠ j), the correlation between any two u i and u j (i ≠ j) is zero. Symbolically, Cov(u i, u j | X i, X j ) = E(u i |X i ) (u j |X j ) = 0 Where i and j are two different observations and where cov means covariance. Assumption 6: Zero covariance between u i and X i, or E(u i X i ) = 0. Formally, cov (u i, X i ) = E (u i X i ) = 0, since E(u i ) = 0 and E(X i ) is nonstochastic

24. Assumption 7: The number of observations n must be greater than the number of explanatory variables. Assumption 8: Variability in X values. The X values in a given sample must not all be the same. Technically, var(X) must be a finite positive number Assumption 9: The regression model is correctly specified. Alternatively, there is no specification bias or error in the model used in empirical analysis. Assumption 10: There is no perfect multicollinearity i.e. there are no perfect linear relationships among the explanatory variables.