1. Pollution 25-30% of your APES Exam

2. Air Pollution Primary pollutants are emitted directly into the air from natural sources such as volcanoes, mobile sources (cars), or stationary sources (factories) – Particulate matter (PM) – Nitric oxide (NO) Nitrogen Dioxide (NO 2 ) – Sulfur Dioxide (SO 2 ) – Carbon Dioxide (CO 2 ) and Carbon Monoxide (CO) Secondary Pollutants result from the reaction of primary pollutants in the atmosphere to form a new pollutant. – Sulfur Trioxide SO 3 – Ozone – PANS – Sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4 )

3. Major Air Pollutants

4. Nitrogen Dioxide (NO 2 ) Forms when fuels are burned at high temps. Also results from forest fires, volcanoes, lightening and bacterial action in the soil Forms Nitric Acid (HNO 3 ) in the air and contributes to acid deposition and cultural eutrophication. Results in lung irritation and damage, suppresses plant growth and may be a carcinogen.

5. Ozone (O 3 ) Major component in photochemical smog Formed by sunlight reacting with NOx and VOCs in the air Causes lung irritation and damage, bronchial constriction, coughing, wheezing, and eye irritation. Damages plants, rubber and plastic. BASIC Formula: O + O 2  O 3

7. Peroxyacyl Nitrates (PAN) PANS are a secondary pollutant formed from the reaction of various hydrocarbons combining with oxygen and nitrogen dioxide and being catalyzed by UV radiation from the sun. Since they dissociate quite slowly in the atmosphere into radicals and NO2, PANs are able to transport these unstable compounds far away from the urban and industrial origin PANs transport NOx to regions where it can more efficiently produce Ozone. At a concentration of only a few particles per billion, they cause eye irritation At higher concentrations they cause extensive damage to vegetation. Hydrocarbons + O 2 + NO 2 + Light  CH 3 COOONO 2 (PAN)

8. Sulfur Dioxide (SO 2 ) Produced by burning high-sulfur oil or coal, smelting of metals, and paper manufacturing. Combines with water vapor in the air to produce acid rain, which reduced productivity in plants Causes breathing difficulties. Significant decreases in concentration and emissions since the US formed the Acid Rain Program and the Clean Air Act.

9. Suspended Particulate Matter (PM 10 ) PMs are particles with a diameter 1/7 the width of human hair Includes: Smoke, dust, diesel soot, lead and asbestos Leading cause in lung irritation and damage Many are known mutagens, teratogens and carcinogens. Reduction of PM would produce health benefits 10X greater than similar reduction in ALL other air pollutants combined.

10. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) Include organic compounds that have a high vapor pressure Over 600 identified compounds Examples: toluene, xylene, formaldehyde, benzene and acetone Found in paints, aerosol sprays, dry-cleaning fluids, and industrial solvents. Causes respiratory irritation and damage Most are carcinogenic and cause liver, kidney and central nervous system damage Concentrations of VOCs may be 1,000X greater indoors than outside.

11. Smog 2 forms: industrial and photochemical Industrial: tends to be sulfur-based and sometimes called Grey-air smog. Photochemical: catalyzed by UV radiation and tends to be nitrogen-based. Also called brown-air smog

12. Formation of Industrial Smog StepChemical Reaction 1. Carbon in coal or oil is burned in oxygen gas to produce carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide gas. C + O 2  CO 2 C + O 2  CO 2. Unburned carbon ends up as soot or particulate matter (PM) C 3. Sulfur in oil and coal reacts with oxygen gas to produce sulfur dioxide. S + O 2  SO 2 4. Sulfur dioxide reacts with oxygen gas to produce sulfur trioxide SO 2 + O 2  SO 3 5. Sulfur trioxide reacts with water vapor in the air to form sulfuric acid. SO 3 + H 2 O  H 2 SO 4 6. Sulfuric acid reacts with atmospheric ammonia to form brown, solid ammonium sulfate. H 2 SO 4 + NH 3  (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4

13. Formation of Photochemical Smog TimeReasonFormulas 6 AM – 9 AMAs people drive to work, concentration of NOx and VOCs increase N 2 + O 2  2NO NO + VOCs  NO 2 NO 2 –UV  NO + O 9 AM- 11 AMAs traffic decreases NOx and VOCs begin to react forming nitrogen dioxide 2NO + O 2  2NO 2 11 AM – 4 PMAs light becomes more intense, Nitrogen dioxide is broken down and ozone increases NO 2 –UV  NO + O O2 + O  O 3 Nitrogen dioxide also reacts with water vapor to produce nitric acid and nitric oxide. 3NO 2 + H 2 O  2HNO 3 + NO Nitrogen dioxide also reacts with VOCs to produce toxic PANs NO 2 + VOC  PAN 4 PMAs the sun goes down the production is stopped NO + VOC + O 2 + UV light  O 3 + PAN

14. Acid Deposition- Wet Wet deposition refers to acidic rain, fog and snow. As this acidic water flows over and through the ground it affects a variety of plants and animals The strength depends on many factors – How acidic the water is – Chemistry and buffering capacity of soils – Types of organisms that rely on water and soil

15. Acid Deposition- Dry Dry deposition refers to acidic gases and particles About half of the acidity in the atmosphere comes from dry deposition Wind blows these acidic particles and gases on buildings, cars, homes and trees, They can also be washed from these surfaces to add to wet deposition

16. Acid Deposition- Sulfur Dioxide Sulfur dioxide enters the atmosphere from burning coal and oil, organic decay, ocean spray and smelting It combines with water vapor to form sulfurous acid ( SO 2 + H 2 O  H 2 SO 3 ) The sulfurous acid reacts with oxygen to form sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 3 + ½ O 2  H 2 SO 4 )

17. Acid Deposition- Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) NOx formed from burning oil, coal and natural gas. Also, volcanoes, forest fires, bacterial action, lightening. Nitrogen Monoxide (NO) reacts with oxygen to produce Nitrogen Dioxide (NO + ½ O 2  NO 2 ) Nitrogen dioxide reacts with water vapor in the air to form nitrous and nitric acids ( 2NO 2 + H 2 O  HNO 2 + HNO 3 )

18. Acid Rain’s Impacts Acidification of lakes and streams Damages trees at high elevations Creates unhealthy soil for microorganisms and decomposers Acid Shock (rapid melting of snow releasing acidic particles) causes a 5-10X increase in acid in waterways than acid rain alone Accelerates the decay of paints and building materials (statues and monuments) Leeches important nutrients (Ca, K, Mg) from soils Leeches heavy metals out of rocks (Pb, Cd and Hg) Prior to falling to earth, SO2 and NOx gases and PM derivatives (sulfates and nitrates) contribute to breathing difficulties and other health problems

19. Urban Heat Islands Occur in metropolitan areas that are significantly warmer than their surroundings (around 10 F warmer) Since warmer air can hold more water, rainfall can be 30% greater. Buildings and concrete reduce the radiation of urban heat to the night sky Thermal properties of surface materials (bricks, concrete and asphalt) store heat longer. Lack of vegetation and standing water also increases temperatures Buildings block winds that remove heat through convection Human activities (cars, AC units, and industry) increase heat The need to run AC units drives up cost and energy availability. High levels of pollution in urban areas an also create a localized greenhouse effect. 1,000 people die each year due to excessive heat

20. Urban Heat Islands Secondary effects on local meteorology, including altering local wind patterns and the development of clouds and fog. Also effects the number of lightening strikes and rate or precipitations The heat island effect can be slightly reduced by using white or reflective building materials and incorporating more parks.

21. Temperature Inversion When the air temp increases high above the ground as opposed to the normal decrease in temp with height. This effect can trap pollution close to the ground This can have adverse effects on human health (asthma, emphysema and increased lung cancers) Temperature inversions commonly happen at night when solar heating ceases and the surface cools which then cools the atmosphere immediately above it. A warm air mass then moves over a colder one keeping the air trapped and still. Dust and pollutant concentrations increase A nearly permanent temperature inversion happens over Antarctica

22. Case Study In 1948, 20 people asphyxiated and over 7,000 were hospitalized in Donora, PA. Smog from the local zinc and steel smelting plants settled in the valley where the town is located. 4 days later the winds finally cleared the toxins away This resulted in the first meaningful federal and state laws to control air pollution and marked the beginning of modern efforts to assess and deal with health threats from air pollution

23. Indoor Air Pollution Inside air pollution can be 25-60% greater than they are outside. The most common indoor air pollutants are – Mold – Bacteria – Carbon monoxide – Radon – Allergens – Asbestos – Tobacco smoke – Formaldehyde – VOCs

24. Sick Building Syndrome Used to describe a commination of ailments (a syndrome) associated with an individuals place of work or residence Up to 1/3 of new and remodeled buildings worldwide have SBS The pollutants are released from carpeting, adhesives and particleboard OR from flaws in heating, ventilation and AC (HVAC) systems Symptoms include: headaches, breathing difficulties, allergies, asthma, cancer, emphysema and various nerve disorders

25. Remediation and Reduction of Air Pollution 1.Emphasizing tax incentives for pollution control rather than fines and penalties 2.Setting legislative standards for energy efficiency 3.Increasing funding for research into renewable energy 4.Incorporating incentives for reducing air pollution into trade policies 5.Distributing solar cook stoves to developing countries to replace coal and firewood

26. Remediation and Reduction of Air Pollution 6. Phasing out two-cycle gasoline engines 7. For issues involving sick building syndrome: (a) modify building codes to control materials used in construction (b) replace and repair areas that have water damage to control mold (c) use paints, adhesives, solvents, and cleaning products in well ventilated areas (d) increasing number of complete air exchanges in building (e) ensure proper maintenance of HVAC systems 8. Provide incentives to use mass transit

27. Reducing Acid Rain Designing more efficient engines to reduce NOx Increasing the efficiency of coal burning power plants to reduce SOx, NOx, and PM Using scrubbers and advanced filtration on smokestacks, electrostatic precipitators, and staged and catalytic burners with after burners. Increasing penalties on stationary sources that do not reduce emissions, providing tax incentives to companies that DO reduce emissions, and to customers who purchase Energy Star appliances Increasing CAFE standards.

28. Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) regulations in the United States, first enacted by the U.S. Congress in 1975, in the wake of the Arab Oil Embargo and were intended to improve the average fuel economy of cars and light trucks (trucks, vans and sport utility vehicles) produced for sale in the United States.

29. EPA’s Acid Rain Program Designed to achieve significant environmental and public health benefits through reductions in emissions of SO 2 and NOx. Allowance trading system Opt-in program that allows non-affected industrial and small utility units to participate in allowance trading Setting new NOx emissions standards Permit process that affords maximum flexibility in selecting cost-effective approaches to reducing pollution Continuous emission monitoring (CEM)

30. Clean Air Act Originally signed into law in 1963 Early visions allowed states to set their own standards Later visions switched responsibility of setting standards to the Federal Government Primary standards protect human health Secondary standards protect materials, crops, climate, visibility and personal comfort.

31. Clean Air Act Pollutant% Change Pb-96% VOC-42% SO2-37% CO-31% NOx+17% PM+226% Notice the increase in NOx and PM

32. Kyoto Protocol Would have required US to reduce greenhouse emissions by 7% of 1990 levels over 5 years Under the agreement, US would have faced penalties if it didn’t make the cuts US saw this goal as unattainable since CO2 and greenhouse gases continue to increase and are projected to increase for the next 20 years. US also thought the standards were not the same for developing nations Also thought that the cost of meeting the targets was too high, the timeframe was too short, and that there was no correlation between greenhouse gases and global warming

33. Relevant Laws and Protocols Air Pollution Control Act (1955): first piece of federal legislation regarding air pollution. Identified air pollution as a national problem and announced that research and additional steps to improve the situation needed to be taken. It made the nation more aware of the problem Clean Air Act (1963): Dealt with reducing air pollution by setting emission standards. Didn’t take into account mobile sources, just secondary sources. Also set standards for auto emissions, expanded local air pollution control programs, set air quality standards and compliance deadlines for stationary source emissions. Authorized research in low- emission fuels and cars.

34. Relevant Laws and Protocols National Environmental Policy Act (1969): Requires a systematic analysis of major federal actions. Includes a consideration of all reasonable alternatives and looked at short-term and long- term, irretrievable, irreversible and unavoidable impacts. Clean Air Act (1970): Established new primary and secondary standards. Set new limits on emissions from stationary and mobile sources enforced by state and federal governments. Increases funds for air pollution research.

35. Relevant Laws and Protocols Montreal Protocol (1989): an agreement among nations requiring the phase-out of chemicals that damage the ozone layer Clean Air Act (1990): Amended again because time limits were too short for auto industry. Addresses 5 main areas: air quality standards, motor vehicle emissions and alternative fuels, toxic air pollutants, acid rain and ozone depletion.

36. Relevant Laws and Protocols Pollution Prevention Act (1990): Requires industries to reduce pollution at its source. Reduction can be in terms of volume and/or toxicity. Kyoto Protocol (1997 and 2001): An agreement among 150 nations requiring greenhouse gas reductions

37. Noise Pollution Unwanted human-created noise that disrupts the environment. Effects: hearing loss, cardiovascular problems, decrease in alertness, gastrointestinal problems, insomnia, nervousness, high blood pressure, anxiety, depression, etc. Control Measures: noise barriers, limitation of time of work day, Noise Control Act (1972): Establishes a national policy to promote less noise. Coordination of federal research and activities in noise control.

38. Sources of Water Pollution Air Pollution: Pollutants like mercury, SO 2, NOx, and ammonia fall out of the sky and into the water. They can cause Mercury contamination in fish and acidification and eutrophication of lakes The oceans have absorbed enough CO 2 to have increases ocean acidification This is causing carbonate structures (corals, algae and marine plankton) to dissolve. These organisms are the base of the food pyramid in the ocean.

39. Sources of Water Pollution Chemicals: Metals, solvents and oils, detergents and pesticides. These can accumulate in fish and shellfish, poison people, animals and birds. On a square-foot basis, homeowners apply more chemicals to their lawn than farmers Each year, road runoff and other non-spill sources impart an amount of oil to the oceans that is most than 5X greater than the Valdez oil spill Discharge of oily wastes and oil-containing water are significant sources of marine pollution Drilling and extraction operation for oil and gas can contaminate coastal waters and groundwater The EPA estimates that 100,000 gasoline storage tanks leak chemicals into groundwater. Studies have shown that 90% of drug prescriptions pass through the human body unaltered and eventually end up in the water.

40. Sources of Water Pollution Chemicals: Animal farming operations that use growth hormones and antibiotics also send large quantities of chemicals into the water Most wastewater treatment facilities are not equipped to filter out personal care produces, household produces or pharmaceuticals. Studies of the effects of these chemicals are affecting gender and hormones in fish and frogs. Also disrupting fish population and growth. In Santa Monica California, wells supplying ½ of the cities water have been closed because of contamination of a gasoline additive MTBE- Components of crude oil, called polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) persist in the marine environment for years are toxic to marine life. Chronic exposure to PAHs can affect development, increase disease and jeopardize normal reproductive cycles in marine species.

41. Sources of Water Pollution Microbiological Sources: disease-causing (pathogenic) microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses and protozoa can result in swimmers getting sick and fish and shell fish becoming contaminates Examples: Cholera, typhoid, shigells, polio, meningitis and hepatitis In developing countries 90% of waste water is discharges directly into lakes and streams. In the US, 850 billion gallons of raw sewage are dumped into rivers, lakes and bays by leaking sewage pipes or systems that overflow when there are heavy rains about 25% of all beaches in the US annually have water pollution advisories and close each year due to bacterial buildup caused by sewage

42. Sources of Water Pollution Mining: The mining process exposes heavy metals and sulfur compounds that were previously locked away in Earth. Rainwater leaches these compounds, resulting in acid mine drainage and heavy metal pollution (can continue for a long time after mining stops) Rainwater on piles of mining wastes transfers pollution to freshwater supplies In gold mining, cyanide is poured directly onto mined rock to extract the gold chemically. Some cyanide finds its way to nearby water. Huge pools of mining waste slurry are often stored behind dams that leak and infiltrate groundwater supply In developing countries they dump the waste directly into water In 2003 the US reclassified mining wastes from mountain top removal so it could be dumped directly into valleys and streams The Iron Mountain min in CA has been closed since 1963 but still drains sulfuric acid and heavy metals into the Sacramento River and expected to continue doing this for 3,000 years.

43. Sources of Water Pollution Noise: Many marine organisms, including marine mammals, sea turtles and fish use sound to communicate, navigate and hunt. Because of oceanic water noise pollution caused by commercial shipping, military sonar and recreational boating, some species have ha harder time hunting, detecting predators and may not be able to navigate properly.

44. Sources of Water Pollution Nutrients: Phosphorus and Nitrogen are necessary for plant growth and are plentiful in untreated waste water When added to lakes and streams they cause growth of aquatic weeds that block waterways as well as algal blooms. If the source is from humans its called cultural eutrophication. Deposition of atmospheric nitrogen (from NOx) also cause nutrient-type water pollution Nutrient pollution is also a problem in estuaries and deltas where the runoff was aggregated by watersheds is finally dumped into the mouth of major rivers.

46. Sources of Water Pollution Oil Spills: Ships carrying oil can wreck and pipes can leak Oil penetrates feathers of seabirds, reducing the ability for the birds to stay insulated, they also become less buoyant in the water. Organisms also ingest the oil Because oil sits on top of the water it doesn’t allow sunlight to get through, limiting photosynthesis of plants and plankton effecting the entire food chain Recovering oil depends on the type of oil, the temp of the water, and the types of shorelines involved. Methods for cleaning up: microorganisms to break oil down, chemicals, dispersants, sorbents, and detergents that act to disperse the oil, absorb it or cause it to clump and sink. They burn it and use booming, skimming and/or vacuuming equipment also

47. Sources of Water Pollution Oxygen-Depleting Substances: biodegradable wastes are uses as nutrients by bacteria and other microorganisms. Excessive biodegradable wastes can cause oxygen depletion in receiving waters This can result in increases in anaerobic bacteria that produce ammonia, amines, sulfides and methane and decreases aerobic organisms such as fish.

48. Sources of Water Pollution Suspended Matter: suspended wastes eventually settle out of water and form silt or mud at the bottom. Toxic materials can also accumulate in the sediment and affect organisms in the food web When forests are clear-cut, the root systems that previously held the soil in place die an the sediment is free to run off into nearby waterways Plastics and plastic-like substances (nylon from fishing nets) can entangle fish, sea turtles and marine mammals causing injury and death. Certain types of plastic can break down into micro particles and become ingested my tiny marine organisms, they then move up the food chain.

49. Sources of Water Pollution Thermal Pollution: produced by industry and power plants Heat reduces the ability of water to hold oxygen. Some organisms cannot tolerate heat and/or low oxygen. Global warming is also imparting additional heat into oceans, rivers, and streams with unknown consequences.

50. Case Studies- Minamata Disease 27 tons of mercury-containing compounds from industrial processes were dumped into Minamata bay in Japan between 1932-1968. The mercury collected in fish and shellfish caught in the bay Symptoms include: blurred vision, hearing loss, loss of muscular coordination and reproductive disorders.

51. Case Studies- Exxon Valdeze In 1989, the oil tanker Exxon Valdez spilled 11- 30 million gallons of crude oil into Prince William Sound, Alaska As a result, 250,000 birds, 3,000 otters, 300 seals, 300 bald eagles and 22 whales along with billions of salmon and herring eggs died. The oil also destroyed the majority of plankton in the sound.

52. Case Study- Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill In April 2010, a massive oil spill followed an explosion on the Deepwater Horizon offshore drilling rig operated by BP This became the most significant environmental disaster to occur in the US As the oil from the well site reached the Gulf coast, billions of dollars in damage was done to the Gulf of Mexico fishing industry, the tourism industry and the habitat of hundreds of birds, fish and other wildlife species.

53. Cultural Eutrophication The process whereby human activity increases the amount of nutrients entering surface waters. The 2 most important nutrients that that cause this are Nitrates (NO 3 -) and phosphates (PO 4 -3 ) Nitrates are water soluble and found in fertilizers that can remain on fields and accumulate and then leech into waterways. Nitrates cause nitrate poisoning in water supplies, reduce the effectiveness of hemoglobin and may be responsible for worldwide decline in amphibians. Phosphates are also a component of inorganic fertilizers. Although they are not water soluble they adhere to soil particles. Soil erosion contributes to the build up of phosphates in water supplies Phosphate levels in water are 75% higher than they were in preindustrial times. Phosphate buildup is more damaging in freshwater systems. Nitrate build up is more damaging in wetlands

54. Cultural Eutrophication Both are algal nutrients. If you increase the concentration of these nutrients explosions of the amounts of algae happen causing Algal Blooms Increases algae results in decreases light penetration, killing off deeper plants and their supply of oxygen to water. Oxygen concentrations decrease in water due to the consequences of increased material for decomposers to eat Lower oxygen concentrations cause fish and other aquatic organisms to die and contaminate the water at a high rate Decaying fish and algae produce toxins in the water Controlling it: planting buffer zones (slows erosion), controlling application and timing of fertilizer application, controlling runoff from feedlots, using denitrifying bacteria.

56. Groundwater Pollution 50% of people in the US depend on groundwater. In some countries its as high as 95% Almost ½ of the water used in agriculture comes from groundwater The EPA estimates that each day 4.5 trillion liters of contaminated water seep into groundwater systems. In the US 60% of the most hazardous liquid wastes, solvents, heavy metals and radioactive materials are injected directly into deep ground wells (these leak into the groundwater) Water entering an aquifer remains there for about 1,400 years compared to the 16 days in a river system. Once groundwater in contaminated its practically impossible to remove the contaminates.

57. Drinking Water Treatment Methods NameDefinition AdsorptionContaminates stick to the surface of granular or powdered activated charcoal DisinfectionChlorine, chloramines, chlorine dioxide, ozone and UV radiation FiltrationRemoves clays, silts, natural organic matter and precipitants from the treatment process. Filtration clarifies water and enhances the effectiveness of disinfection Flocculation-SedimentationProcess that combines small particles into larger particles that then settle out of the water as sediment. Alum, iron salts or synthetic organic polymers are generally used to promote coagulation Ion ExchangeRemoves inorganic wastes. It can be used to remove arsenic, chromium, excess fluoride, nitrates, radium and uranium

58. Water treatment remediation technology NameExplanation Adsorption/absorptionSolutes concentrate at the surface of the sorbent (an absorbing surface), thereby reducing their concentration AerationBubbling air through water increases rates of oxidation Air StrippingVOCs are separated from groundwater by exposing water to air (the VOCs evaporate due to their high vapor pressure) BioreactorsGroundwater is acted upon by microorganisms Constructed WetlandsUses natural geochemical and biological processes that parallel natural wetlands. Also known as living machines Deep-Well InjectionsUses injection wells to place treated or untreated liquid waste into geological formations that do not pose a potential risk to groundwater Enhanced bioremediation The natural rate of bioremediation is enhanced by adding oxygen and nutrients into groundwater Fluid-vapor extractionA vacuum system is applied to low-permeable soil to remove liquids and gases

59. Water treatment remediation technology NameDescription Granulated Activated Carbon (GAC) Groundwater is pumped through a series of columns containing activated carbon Hot water or steam flush Steam or hot water is forced into an aquifer to vaporize volatile contaminants and is then treated through fluid-vapor extraction In-well air strippingAir is injected into wells- the air picks up various contaminants, particularly VOCs. Vapors are drawn off by vapor extraction PhytoremediationUses plants to remove contamination UV OxidationUses UV light, ozone or hydrogen peroxide to destroy microbiological contaminants.

60. Septic Systems Consists of a tank and a drain field Wastewater enters the tank where solids settle Anaerobic digestion using bacteria treats the settled solids and reduces their volume Excess liquid leaves the tank and moves through a pipe with holes in it to a leach field where the water percolates into the soil Some pollutants, especially nitrogen, don’t decompose in a septic system and may contaminate groundwater About 25% of Americans rely on septic systems

61. Septic System

62. Waste Water Treatment- Primary Reduces oils, grease, fats, sand, grit and course solids Specific steps include sand catchers, screens and sedimentation. This is a physical method of cleaning

63. Waste Water Treatment- Secondary Designed to degrade substantially the biological content of the sewage derived from human waste, food waste, soaps and detergents Specific steps include: filters, activated sludge, oxidizing beds, trickling filter beds and secondary sedimentation This is a biological method of cleaning

64. Sewage Treatment Process

65. Waste Water Treatment- Tertiary Final stage to raise the effluent quality to the standard required before its discharged Steps include: sand filtration, lagooning, constructed wetlands, nutrient removal through biological or chemical precipitation, denitrification using bacteria, removal of phosphorus using bacteria, microfiltration and disinfection using UV light, chlorine or ozone.

66. Waste Water Treatment Process

67. Relevant Laws LawDescription Federal Water Pollution Control Act (1948) Created comprehensive programs for eliminating or reducing the pollution of interstate water and improving the sanitary condition of surface and groundwater Water Quality Act (1965)Established water purity standards with states retaining initial responsibility for water purity Clean Water Act (1972)Established the basic structure for regulating discharges of pollutants into the waters of the US. It gave the EPA authority to implement pollution control programs such as setting standards for industry. Also continued requirements to set water quality standards for all contaminants in surface water. Act made it unlawful to discharge any pollutant into water unless a permit is obtained. Safe Water Drinking Act (1974) Established standards for safe drinking water in the US Ocean Dumping Ban (1988) Made it unlawful for anyone to dump or transport for the purpose of dumping wastes into the ocean.

68. Relevant Laws LawDescription Oil Spill Prevention and Liability Act (1990) Strengthened the PRA’s ability to prevent and respond to catastrophic oil spills Source Water Assessment Program SWAP (1996) Required states to identify sources of public drinking water supplies and assess susceptibility to contamination Source Water Protection Program SWPP (1996) Encouraged states to adopt a community based approach to preventing water pollution Surface Water Treatment Rule SWTR (1996) Addressed control of microbial pathogens Convention on POPs (2001)Countries committed to reduce and/or eliminate the production, use or release of 12 persistent organic pollutants (POP) of great concern (EX. PCB’s) and to establish a mechanism by which additional chemicals may be added to the Treaty in the future.

69. Solid Wastes TypeDescription OrganicKitchen wastes, vegetables, flowers, leaves or fruits. Usually decomposes within 2 weeks although wood can take 10-15 years to decompose RadioactiveSpent fuel rods and smoke detectors. Radioactive wastes can take hundreds to thousands of years to decompose RecyclablePaper, glass, metals and some plastics. Paper decomposes in 10-30 days. Glass does not decompose. Metals decompose in 100-500 years. Some plastics can take up to 1 million years to decompose SoiledHospital Wastes. Cotton and cloth can take 2-5 months to decompose ToxicPaints, chemicals, pesticides and so on. Toxic wastes can take hundreds of years to decompose.

70. Solid Wastes

71. Disposing of Solid Wastes Pros and Cons

72. Burning, Incinerating or Energy Recovery ProsCons Heat can be used to supplement energy requirements Air pollution including lead, mercury, NOx, cadmium, SO2, HCl, and dioxins Reduces impact on landfillsSorting out batteries, plastics etc, is expensive Mass burning is inexpensiveNo way of knowing toxic consequences What is left is 10-20% of its original volume Ash is more concentrated with toxic metals US incinerates 15% of its wasteInitial costs on incinerators are high France, Japan, Sweden and Switzerland incinerate >40% of their waste and use the heat to generate electricity Adds to acid precipitation and global warming.

73. Composting ProsCons Creates nutrient-rich soil additive Public reaction to odor, vermin and insects Aids in water retentionNot in my backyard (NIMBY) Slows down soil erosion No major toxic issues

74. Remanufacturing ProsCons Recovers materials that would have been discarded Toxic materials may be present (CFCs, heavy metals, toxic chemicals, and so on) Beneficial to inner cities as industry because material is available and jobs are needed

75. Detoxifying ProsCons Reduces impact on environment Expensive

76. Exporting ProsCons Gets rid of problem immediately Garbage imperialism or environmental racism Source of income for poor countries Long-term effects unknown Expensive to transport

77. Land Disposal- Sanitary Landfills ProsCons Waste is covered each day with dirt to help prevent insects and rodents Rising land prices. Current cost 1 million per hectare Plastic liners, drainage systems and other methods help control leaching material into groundwater Transportation costs to landfill Geologic studies and environmental impact studies are performed prior to building High Costs of running and monitoring landfill Collection of methane and use of fuel cells to supplement energy demand Legal liability Use of anaerobic methane generators reduces dependence on other energy resources Suitable areas are limited NIMBY Degradable plastics don’t decompose completely.

78. Land Disposal- Open Dumping ProsCons InexpensiveTrash blows away in the wind Provides a source of income to the poor by providing recyclable products to sell Vermin and disease Leaching of toxic metals into the soil Aesthetics

79. Ocean Dumping ProsCons InexpensiveDebris floats to unintended areas Marine organisms and the food webs are impacted Illegal in United States

80. Recycling ProsCons Turns waste into an inexpensive resourcePoor regulation Reduces impact on landfillsFluctuations in market price Reduces need for raw materials and the costs associated with it Throwaway packaging is more popular Reduces energy requirements to produce products. Recycling Aluminum cuts energy use by 95%. Using Steel from scrap reduces energy requirements by 75% Current policies and regulations favor extraction of raw materials. Energy, water, and raw materials are sold below real costs to stimulate new jobs and the economy Reduces dependence on foreign oil Reduces air and water pollution Bottle bills provide economic incentive to recycle

81. Reuse ProCon Most efficient method of reclaiming materials Cost of collecting materials on a large scale is expensive Industry models already in place- auto salvage yards, building materials and so on Cost of washing and decontaminating containers is expensive Refillable glass bottles can be used 15 times Only when items are expensive and labor is cheap is reuse economical Cloth diapers do not impact landfills

82. Relevant Laws LawDescription Soild Waste Disposal Act (1965) First federal law the required environmentally sound methods for disposal of household, municipal, commercial and industrial waste Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (1976) Encouraged states to develop comprehensive plans to manage nonhazardous industrial solid and municipal wastes. Set criteria for municipal landfills and disposal facilities and prohibited open dumping of solid waste. Toxic Substance Control Act (TOSCA) (1976) Gave the EPA the authority to track industrial chemicals produces within or imported into the US. Allows the EPA to ban the manufacture or importation of chemicals that pose a risk Nuclear Waste Policy Act (1982) Established federal authority to provide locations for permanent disposal of high level radioactive wastes and required the operators of nuclear power plants to pay the costs of permanent disposal

83. Relevant Laws LawDescription Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensations and Liability Act- SUPERFUND (1980) Provided authority for the federal government to respond to releases or possible releases of hazardous substances that could threaten public health and/or the environment. Established rules for closed and abandoned hazardous waste sites. Established liability for corporations responsible for hazardous waste sites. Created a trust fund for cleanup if responsible party cant be found. Marine Plastic Pollution Research and Control Act (1987) Discharge of plastics into water is prohibited. Food waste, paper, rage, glass and metal cant be discharged into navigable water or within 12 miles of land Medical Waste Tracking Act (1988) Required tracking systems, stringent management standards, packaging and labeling of medical supplies Waste Reduction Act (1990)Requires EPA to develop and coordinate pollution prevention strategy and develop source reduction models. Requires owners and operators of manufacturing to report annually on source reduction and recycling.