1. Chapter 2 Arrays and Structures  The array as an abstract data type  Structures and Unions  The polynomial Abstract Data Type  The Sparse Matrix Abstract Data Type  The Representation of Multidimensional Arrays

2. 2.1 The array as an ADT (1/6)  Arrays  Array: a set of pairs,  Array: a set of pairs,  data structure  For each index, there is a value associated with that index.  representation (possible)  Implemented by using consecutive memory.  In mathematical terms, we call this a correspondence or a mapping.

3. 2.1 The array as an ADT (2/6)  When considering an ADT we are more concerned with the operations that can be performed on an array.  Aside from creating a new array, most languages provide only two standard operations for arrays, one that retrieves a value, and a second that stores a value.  Structure 2.1 shows a definition of the array ADT  The advantage of this ADT definition is that it clearly points out the fact that the array is a more general structure than “a consecutive set of memory locations.”

4. 2.1 The array as an ADT (3/6)

5. 2.1 The array as an ADT (4/6)  Arrays in C  int list[5], *plist[5];  list[5]: (five integers) list[0], list[1], list[2], list[3], list[4]  *plist[5]: (five pointers to integers)  plist[0], plist[1], plist[2], plist[3], plist[4]  implementation of 1-D array list[0]base address =  list[1]  + sizeof(int) list[2]  + 2*sizeof(int) list[3]  + 3*sizeof(int) list[4]  + 4*sizeof(int)

6. 2.1 The array as an ADT (5/6)  Arrays in C (cont’d)  Compare int *list1 and int list2[5] in C. Same:list1 and list2 are pointers. Difference:list2 reserves five locations.  Notations: list2 － a pointer to list2[0] (list2 + i) － a pointer to list2[i] (&list2[i]) *(list2 + i) － list2[i]

7. 2.1 The array (6/6)  Example: 1-dimension array addressing  int one[] = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4};  Goal: print out address and value  void print1(int *ptr, int rows){ /* print out a one-dimensional array using a pointer */ int i; printf(“Address Contents\n”); for (i=0; i < rows; i++) printf(“%8u%5d\n”, ptr+i, *(ptr+i)); printf(“\n”); }

8. 2.2 Structures and Unions (1/6)  2.2.1 Structures (records)  Arrays are collections of data of the same type. In C there is an alternate way of grouping data that permit the data to vary in type.  This mechanism is called the struct, short for structure.  A structure is a collection of data items, where each item is identified as to its type and name.

9. 2.2 Structures and Unions (2/6)  Create structure data type  We can create our own structure data types by using the typedef statement as below:  This says that human_being is the name of the type defined by the structure definition, and we may follow this definition with declarations of variables such as: human_being person1, person2; human_being person1, person2;

10. 2.2 Structures and Unions (3/6)  We can also embed a structure within a structure.  A person born on February 11, 1994, would have have values for the date struct set as

11. 2.2 Structures and Unions (4/6)  2.2.2 Unions  A union declaration is similar to a structure.  The fields of a union must share their memory space.  Only one field of the union is “active” at any given time   Example: Add fields for male and female. person1.sex_info.sex = male; person1.sex_info.u.beard = FALSE; and person2.sex_info.sex = female; person2.sex_info.u.children = 4;

12. 2.2 Structures and Unions (5/6)  2.2.3 Internal implementation of structures  The fields of a structure in memory will be stored in the same way using increasing address locations in the order specified in the structure definition.  Holes or padding may actually occur  Within a structure to permit two consecutive components to be properly aligned within memory  The size of an object of a struct or union type is the amount of storage necessary to represent the largest component, including any padding that may be required.

13. 2.2 Structures and Unions (6/6)  2.2.4 Self-Referential Structures  One or more of its components is a pointer to itself.  typedef struct list { char data; list *link; }  list item1, item2, item3; item1.data=‘a’; item2.data=‘b’; item3.data=‘c’; item1.link=item2.link=item3.link=NULL; abc Construct a list with three nodes item1.link=&item2; item2.link=&item3; malloc: obtain a node (memory) free: release memory

14. 2.3 The polynomial ADT (1/10)  Ordered or Linear List Examples  ordered (linear) list: (item1, item2, item3, …, itemn)  (Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday)  (Ace, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, Jack, Queen, King)  (basement, lobby, mezzanine, first, second)  (1941, 1942, 1943, 1944, 1945)  (a 1, a 2, a 3, …, a n-1, a n )

15. 2.3 The polynomial ADT (2/10)  Operations on Ordered List  Finding the length, n, of the list.  Reading the items from left to right (or right to left).  Retrieving the i’th element.  Storing a new value into the i’th position.  Inserting a new element at the position i, causing elements numbered i, i+1, …, n to become numbered i+1, i+2, …, n+1  Deleting the element at position i, causing elements numbered i+1, …, n to become numbered i, i+1, …, n-1  Implementation  sequential mapping (1)~(4)  non-sequential mapping (5)~(6)

16. 2.3 The polynomial ADT (3/10)  Polynomial examples:  Two example polynomials are:  A(x) = 3x 20 +2x 5 +4 and B(x) = x 4 +10x 3 +3x 2 +1  Assume that we have two polynomials, A(x) =  a i x i and B(x) =  b i x i then:  Assume that we have two polynomials, A(x) =  a i x i and B(x) =  b i x i where x is the variable, a i is the coefficient, and i is the exponent, then:  A(x) + B(x) =  (a i + b i )x i  A(x) · B(x) =  (a i x i ·  (b j x j ))  Similarly, we can define subtraction and division on polynomials, as well as many other operations.

17. 2.3 The polynomial ADT (4/10)  An ADT definition of a polynomial

18. 2.3 The polynomial ADT (5/10)  There are two ways to create the type polynomial in C  Representation I  define MAX_degree 101 /*MAX degree of polynomial+1*/ typedef struct{ int degree; float coef [MAX_degree]; }polynomial; drawback : the first representation may waste space.

19. 2.3 (6/10)  Polynomial Addition  /* d =a + b, where a, b, and d are polynomials */ d = Zero( ) while (! IsZero(a) && ! IsZero(b)) do { switch COMPARE (Lead_Exp(a), Lead_Exp(b)) { case -1: d = Attach(d, Coef (b, Lead_Exp(b)), Lead_Exp(b)); b = Remove(b, Lead_Exp(b)); break; case 0: sum = Coef (a, Lead_Exp (a)) + Coef ( b, Lead_Exp(b)); if (sum) { Attach (d, sum, Lead_Exp(a)); } a = Remove(a, Lead_Exp(a)); b = Remove(b, Lead_Exp(b)); break; case 1: d = Attach(d, Coef (a, Lead_Exp(a)), Lead_Exp(a)); a = Remove(a, Lead_Exp(a)); } } insert any remaining terms of a or b into d *Program 2.4 :Initial version of padd function(p.62) advantage: easy implementation disadvantage: waste space when sparse

20. 2.3 The polynomial ADT (7/10)  Representation II  MAX_TERMS 100 /*size of terms array*/ typedef struct{ float coef; int expon; }polynomial; polynomial terms [MAX_TERMS]; int avail = 0;

21. 2.3 The polynomial ADT (8/10)  Use one global array to store all polynomials  Figure 2.2 shows how these polynomials are stored in the array terms. A(x) = 2x 1000 +1 B(x) = x 4 +10x 3 +3x 2 +1 specificationrepresentation poly A B storage requirements: start, finish, 2*(finish-start+1) non-sparse: twice as much as Representation I when all the items are nonzero

22. 2.3 The polynomial ADT (9/10)  We would now like to write a C function that adds two polynomials, A and B, represented as above to obtain D = A + B.  To produce D(x), padd (Program 2.5) adds A(x) and B(x) term by term. Analysis: O(n+m) where n (m) is the number of nonzeros in A (B).

23. 2.3 The polynomial ADT (10/10) Problem:Compaction is required when polynomials that are no longer needed. (data movement takes time.)

24. 2.4 The sparse matrix ADT (1/18)  2.4.1 Introduction  In mathematics, a matrix contains m rows and n columns of elements, we write m  n to designate a matrix with m rows and n columns. 5*3 6*6 15/158/36 sparse matrix data structure?

25. 2.4 The sparse matrix ADT (2/18)  The standard representation of a matrix is a two dimensional array defined as a[MAX_ROWS][MAX_COLS].  We can locate quickly any element by writing a[i ][ j ]  Sparse matrix wastes space  We must consider alternate forms of representation.  Our representation of sparse matrices should store only nonzero elements.   Each element is characterized by.

26. 2.4 The sparse matrix ADT (3/18)  Structure 2.3 contains our specification of the matrix ADT.  A minimal set of operations includes matrix creation, addition, multiplication, and transpose.

27. 2.4 The sparse matrix ADT (4/18)  We implement the Create operation as below:

28. 2.4 The sparse matrix ADT (5/18)  Figure 2.4(a) shows how the sparse matrix of Figure 2.3(b) is represented in the array a.  Represented by a two-dimensional array.  Each element is characterized by. transpose row, column in ascending order # of rows (columns)# of nonzero terms

29. 2.4 The sparse matrix ADT (6/18)  2.4.2 Transpose a Matrix  For each row i  take element and store it in element of the transpose.  difficulty: where to put (0, 0, 15) ====> (0, 0, 15) (0, 3, 22) ====> (3, 0, 22) (0, 5, -15) ====> (5, 0, -15) (1, 1, 11) ====> (1, 1, 11) Move elements down very often.  For all elements in column j, place element in element  For all elements in column j, place element in element

30. 2.4 The sparse matrix ADT (7/18)  This algorithm is incorporated in transpose (Program 2.7). Scan the array “columns” times. The array has “elements” elements. ==> O(columns*elements) elements columns

31. 2.4 The sparse matrix ADT (8/18)  Discussion: compared with 2-D array representation  O(columns*elements) vs. O(columns*rows)  elements --> columns * rows when non-sparse, O(columns 2 *rows)  Problem: Scan the array “columns” times.  In fact, we can transpose a matrix represented as a sequence of triples in O(columns + elements) time.  Solution:  First, determine the number of elements in each column of the original matrix.  Second, determine the starting positions of each row in the transpose matrix.

32. 2.4 The sparse matrix ADT (9/18)   Compared with 2-D array representation: O(columns+elements) vs. O(columns*rows) elements --> columns * rows O(columns*rows) columns elements Cost: Additional row_terms and starting_pos arrays are required. Let the two arrays row_terms and starting_pos be shared. columns

33. 2.4 The sparse matrix ADT (10/18)  After the execution of the third for loop, the values of row_terms and starting_pos are: transpose [0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] row_terms = 2 1 2 2 0 1 starting_pos = 1 3 4 6 8 8 [0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] row_terms = 2 1 2 2 0 1 starting_pos = 1 3 4 6 8 8

34. 2.4 The sparse matrix ADT (11/18)  2.4.3 Matrix multiplication  Definition: Given A and B where A is m  n and B is n  p, the product matrix D has dimension m  p. Its element is Given A and B where A is m  n and B is n  p, the product matrix D has dimension m  p. Its element is for 0  i < m and 0  j < p. for 0  i < m and 0  j < p.  Example:

35. 2.4 The sparse matrix ADT (12/18)  Sparse Matrix Multiplication  Definition: [D] m*p =[A] m*n * [B] n*p  Procedure: Fix a row of A and find all elements in column j of B for j=0, 1, …, p-1.  Alternative 1. Scan all of B to find all elements in j.  Alternative 2. Compute the transpose of B. (Put all column elements consecutively)  Once we have located the elements of row i of A and column j of B we just do a merge operation similar to that used in the polynomial addition of 2.2

36. 2.4 The sparse matrix ADT (13/18)  General case: d ij =a i0 *b 0j +a i1 *b 1j +…+a i(n-1) *b (n-1)j   Array A is grouped by i, and after transpose, array B is also grouped by j aSadSd bSbeSe cScfSf gSg The generation at most: entries ad, ae, af, ag, bd, be, bf, bg, cd, ce, cf, cg

37. The sparse matrix ADT (14/18)  An Example A = 1 0 2 B T = 3 -1 0 B = 3 0 2 -1 4 6 0 0 0 -1 0 0 2 0 5 0 0 5 a[0] 2 3 5 b t [0] 3 3 4 b[0] 3 3 4 [1] 0 0 1 b t [1] 0 0 3 b[1] 0 0 3 [2] 0 2 2 b t [2] 0 1 -1 b[2] 0 2 2 [3] 1 0 -1 b t [3] 2 0 2 b[3] 1 0 -1 [4] 1 1 4 b t [4] 2 2 5 b[4] 2 2 5 [5] 1 2 6 row col value

38. 2.4 The sparse matrix ADT (15/18)  The programs 2.9 and 2.10 can obtain the product matrix D which multiplies matrices A and B. a × b

39. 2.4 The sparse matrix ADT (16/18)

40. 2.4 The sparse matrix ADT (17/18)  Analyzing the algorithm  cols_b * termsrow1 + totalb + cols_b * termsrow2 + totalb + … + cols_b * termsrowp + totalb = cols_b * (termsrow1 + termsrow2 + … + termsrowp)+ rows_a * totalb = cols_b * totala + row_a * totalb O(cols_b * totala + rows_a * totalb)

41. 2.4 The sparse matrix ADT (18/18)  Compared with matrix multiplication using array  for (i =0; i < rows_a; i++) for (j=0; j < cols_b; j++) { sum =0; for (k=0; k < cols_a; k++) sum += (a[i][k] *b[k][j]); d[i][j] =sum; }  O(rows_a * cols_a * cols_b) vs. O(cols_b * total_a + rows_a * total_b)  optimal case: total_a < rows_a * cols_a total_b < cols_a * cols_b  worse case: total_a --> rows_a * cols_a, or total_b --> cols_a * cols_b

42. 2.5 Representation of multidimensional array (1/5)  The internal representation of multidimensional arrays requires more complex addressing formula.  If an array is declared a[upper 0 ][upper 1 ]…[upper n ], then it is easy to see that the number of elements in the array is: Where  is the product of the upper i ’s. Where  is the product of the upper i ’s.  Example:  If we declare a as a[10][10][10], then we require 10*10*10 = 1000 units of storage to hold the array.

43. 2.5 Representation of multidimensional array (2/5)  Represent multidimensional arrays: row major order and column major order.  Row major order stores multidimensional arrays by rows.  A[upper 0 ][upper 1 ] as upper 0 rows, row 0, row 1, …, row upper0-1, each row containing upper1 elements.

44. 2.5 Representation of multidimensional array (3/5)   Row major order:A[i][j] :  + i*upper 1 + j   Column major order:A[i][j] :  + j*upper 0 + i col 0 col 1 col u1-1 row 0 A[0][0]A[0][1]...A[0][u1-1]  + u 0  +(u 1 -1)* u 0 row 1 A[1][0]A[1][1]...A[1][u1-1]  + u 1... row u0-1 A[u0-1][0]A[u0-1][1]...A[u0-1][u1-1]  +(u 0 -1)*u 1

45. 2.5 Representation of multidimensional array (4/5)  To represent a three-dimensional array, A[upper 0 ][upper 1 ][upper 2 ], we interpret the array as upper 0 two-dimensional arrays of dimension upper 1  upper 2.  To locate a[i][j][k], we first obtain  + i*upper 1 * upper 2 as the address of a[i][0][0] because there are i two dimensional arrays of size upper 1 *upper 2 preceding this element.   + i*upper 1 *upper 2 +j *upper 2 +k as the address of a[i][j][k]. as the address of a[i][j][k].

46. 2.5 Representation of multidimensional array (5/5)  Generalizing on the preceding discussion, we can obtain the addressing formula for any element A[i 0 ][i 1 ]…[i n-1 ] in an n-dimensional array declared as: A[upper 0 ][upper 1 ]…[upper n-1 ]   The address for A[i 0 ][i 1 ]…[i n-1 ] is:

47. 2.6 The String Abstract data type(1/19) 2.6.1 Introduction  The String: component elements are characters.   A string to have the form, S = s0, …, sn-1, where si are characters taken from the character set of the programming language.   If n = 0, then S is an empty or null string.   Operations in ADT 2.4, p. 81

48. 2.6 The String Abstract data type(2/19)  ADT String:

49. 2.6 The String Abstract data type(3/19)  In C, we represent strings as character arrays terminated with the null character \0.  Figure 2.8 shows how these strings would be represented internally in memory.

50. 2.6 The String Abstract data type(4/19)  Now suppose we want to concatenate these strings together to produce the new string:   Two strings are joined together by strcat(s, t), which stores the result in s. Although s has increased in length by five, we have no additional space in s to store the extra five characters. Our compiler handled this problem inelegantly: it simply overwrote the memory to fit in the extra five characters. Since we declared t immediately after s, this meant that part of the word “house” disappeared.

51. 2.6 The String Abstract data type(5/19)  C string functions functions

52. 2.6 The String Abstract data type(6/19)  Example 2.2[String insertion]:  Assume that we have two strings, say string 1 and string 2, and that we want to insert string 2 into string 1 starting at the i th position of string 1. We begin with the declarations:  In addition to creating the two strings, we also have created a pointer for each string.

53. 2.6 The String Abstract data type(7/19)  Now suppose that the first string contains “amobile” and the second contains “uto”.  we want to insert “uto” starting at position 1 of starting at position 1 of the first string, thereby the first string, thereby producing the word producing the word “automobile.’ “automobile.’

54. 2.6 The String Abstract data type(8/19)  String insertion function:  It should never be used in practice as it is wasteful in its use of time and space.

55. 2.6 The String Abstract data type(9/19)  2.6.2 Pattern Matching:  Assume that we have two strings, string and pat where pat is a pattern to be searched for in string.  If we have the following declarations:  Then we use the following statements to determine if pat is in string:  If pat is not in string, this method has a computing time of O(n*m) where n is the length of pat and m is the length of string.

56. 2.6 The String Abstract data type(10/19)  We can improve on an exhaustive pattern matching technique by quitting when strlen(pat) is greater than the number of remaining characters in the string.

57. 2.6 The String Abstract data type(11/19)  Example 2.3 [Simulation of nfind]  Suppose pat=“aab” and and string=“ababbaabaa.”  Analysis of nfind: The computing time for The computing time for these string is linear these string is linear in the length of the in the length of the string O(m), but the string O(m), but the Worst case is still O(n.m).

58. 2.6 The String Abstract data type(12/19)  Ideally, we would like an algorithm that works in O(strlen(string)+strlen(pat)) time.This is optimal for this problem as in the worst case it is necessary to look at all characters in the pattern and string at least once. O(strlen(string)+strlen(pat)) time.This is optimal for this problem as in the worst case it is necessary to look at all characters in the pattern and string at least once.  Knuth,Morris, and Pratt have developed a pattern matching algorithm that works in this way and has linear complexity.

59. 2.6 The String Abstract data type(13/19)  Suppose pat = “a b c a b c a c a b”

60. 2.6 The String Abstract data type(14/19)  From the definition of the failure function, we arrive at the following rule for pattern matching: if a partial match is found such that Si-j…Si-1=P0P1…Pj-1 and Si != Pj then matching may be resumed by comparing Si and Pf(j-1)+1 if j != 0.If j= 0, then we may continue by comparing Si+1 and P0.

61. 2.6 The String Abstract data type(15/19)  This pattern matching rule translates into function pmatch.

62. 2.6 The String Abstract data type(16/19)  Analysis of pmatch:  The while loop is iterated until the end of either the string or the pattern is reached. Since i is never decreased, the lines that increase i cannot be executed more than m = strlen(string) times. The resetting of j to failure[j-1]+1 decreases j++ as otherwise, j falls off the pattern. Each time the statement j++ is executed, i is also incremented. So j cannot be incremented more than m times. Hence the complexity of function pmatch is O(m) = O(strlen(string)).

63. 2.6 The String Abstract data type(17/19)  If we can compute the failure function in O(strlen(pat)) time, then the entire pattern matching process will have a computing time proportional to the sum of the lengths of the string and pattern. Fortunately, there is a fast way to compute the failure function. This is based upon the following restatement of the failure function:

64. 2.6 The String Abstract data type(18/19)

65. 2.6 The String Abstract data type(19/19)  Analysis of fail:  In each iteration of the while loop the value of i decreases (by the definition of f ). The variable i is reset at the beginning of each iteration of the for loop. However, it is either reset to -1(initially or when the previous iteration of the for loop goes through the last else clause) or it is reset to a value 1 greater than its terminal value on the previous iteration (i.e., when the statement failure [ j ] = i+1 is executed). Since the for loop is iterated only n-1(n is the length of the pattern) times, the value of i has a total increment of at most n-1. Hence it cannot be decremented more than n-1 times.  Consequently the while loop is iterated at most n-1 times over the whole algorithm and the computing time of fail is O(n) = O(strlen(pat)).