1. Utilitarianism and Liberty

2. Introduction Kant Kant Only a will can be absolutely good or bad Only a will can be absolutely good or bad The only good is a will shaped by duty The only good is a will shaped by duty

3. Introduction Kant Kant Only a will can be absolutely good or bad Only a will can be absolutely good or bad OK OK The only good is a will shaped by duty The only good is a will shaped by duty

4. Introduction Kant Kant Only a will can be absolutely good or bad Only a will can be absolutely good or bad OK OK The only good is a will shaped by duty The only good is a will shaped by duty Not OK – don’t results matter at all? Not OK – don’t results matter at all?

5. Introduction Kant Kant Only a will can be absolutely good or bad Only a will can be absolutely good or bad OK OK The only good is a will shaped by duty The only good is a will shaped by duty Not OK – don’t results matter at all? Not OK – don’t results matter at all? We are all some sort of consequentialist We are all some sort of consequentialist

6. Introduction Kant Kant Only a will can be absolutely good or bad Only a will can be absolutely good or bad OK OK The only good is a will shaped by duty The only good is a will shaped by duty Not OK – don’t results matter at all? Not OK – don’t results matter at all? We are all some sort of consequentialist We are all some sort of consequentialist Bentham/Mill Bentham/Mill Utilitarianism is pure consequentialism Utilitarianism is pure consequentialism

7. Background Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)

8. Background An Enlightenment man An Enlightenment man American and French Revolutions American and French Revolutions Declarations of Rights Declarations of Rights

9. Background Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) An Enlightenment man An Enlightenment man American and French Revolutions American and French Revolutions Declarations of Rights Declarations of Rights Opposed all talk of rights Opposed all talk of rights Natural rights is simple nonsense: natural and imprescriptible rights, rhetorical nonsense, -- nonsense upon stilts. … in proportion as it is advantageous a right should be established

10. Background John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)

11. Background Bentham’s godson and intellectual successor Bentham’s godson and intellectual successor

12. Background John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) Bentham’s godson and intellectual successor Bentham’s godson and intellectual successor Lived during the later Industrial Revolution Lived during the later Industrial Revolution Social dislocation Social dislocation Urbanisation Urbanisation Poverty and Proletarianization Poverty and Proletarianization Luddites, Revolutionaries, Trades Unions, Cooperatives … Luddites, Revolutionaries, Trades Unions, Cooperatives … Romanticism Romanticism

13. Background John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) Bentham’s godson and intellectual successor Bentham’s godson and intellectual successor Lived during the later Industrial Revolution Lived during the later Industrial Revolution Social dislocation Social dislocation Urbanisation Urbanisation Poverty and Proletarianization Poverty and Proletarianization Luddites, Revolutionaries, Trades Unions, Cooperatives … Luddites, Revolutionaries, Trades Unions, Cooperatives … Romanticism Romanticism Laisser faire capitalism Laisser faire capitalism Socialist reactions Socialist reactions

14. Essential Utilitarianism A U. is a moral naturalist A U. is a moral naturalist What makes an act a good act is a natural fact about that act What makes an act a good act is a natural fact about that act The relevant fact is the consequent happiness of persons The relevant fact is the consequent happiness of persons Bentham simply asserts: Bentham simply asserts: Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as to determine what we shall do.

15. Essential Utilitarianism A U. is a moral naturalist A U. is a moral naturalist Mill argues: Mill argues: The only evidence that something is desirable is that it is desired The only evidence that something is desirable is that it is desired (Compare: The only evidence that something is visble is that it is seen) Only pleasure is ever desired for itself Only pleasure is ever desired for itself (Compare with Aristotle’s argument for eudaimonia) Therefore only pleasure is desirable Therefore only pleasure is desirable (Query: Does the argument use ‘desirable’ ambiguously?)

16. Essential Utilitarianism Thesis: Thesis: What is good is what conduces to the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people

17. Essential Utilitarianism Principle: Principle: Always act to produce the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people

18. Essential Utilitarianism Advantages: Advantages: Clarity – it’s absolutely clear what counts in morals Clarity – it’s absolutely clear what counts in morals Impartiality – favourites are not played Impartiality – favourites are not played Results – justifies our desire to see good outcomes Results – justifies our desire to see good outcomes

19. Essential Utilitarianism A disadvantage: A disadvantage: Mundanity – where’s the moral heroism? Mundanity – where’s the moral heroism? Nietzsche (Twilight of the Idols) Nietzsche (Twilight of the Idols) Man does not strive after happiness; only the Englishman does that.

20. Bentham’s Version Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation By the principle of utility is meant that principle which approves, or disapproves of every action whatsoever, according to the tendency which it appears to have to augment or diminish the happiness of the party whose interest is in question: or, what is the same thing in other words, to promote or to oppose that happiness

21. Bentham’s Version Add the values for the following qualities to discover the moral worth of an action Add the values for the following qualities to discover the moral worth of an action 1. intensity 2. duration 3. certainty or uncertainty 4. propinquity or remoteness (whether the sensation is ready to hand or a long-term effect) 5. fecundity (how likely it is that the sensation will yield further sensations of the same kind) 6. purity (how likely it is that the sensation will be followed by sensations of the opposite kind) 7. extent (how much the sensation is shared)

22. Problems Knowledge Knowledge Can we always know what the outcome of an action will be? Can we always know what the outcome of an action will be?

23. Problems Knowledge Knowledge Can we always know what the outcome of an action will be? Can we always know what the outcome of an action will be? Practicality Practicality How many alternative possibilities need to be considered? How many alternative possibilities need to be considered? How far into the future must we project? How far into the future must we project?

24. Responses Apply rules of thumb rather than doing complete calculations Apply rules of thumb rather than doing complete calculations

25. Responses Treat it as a standard of right action rather than as a decision procedure Treat it as a standard of right action rather than as a decision procedure Our decision procedure may be an appeal to intuitions or rules of thumb, but if they are shown to fail to meet the standard then they must be adjusted Our decision procedure may be an appeal to intuitions or rules of thumb, but if they are shown to fail to meet the standard then they must be adjusted

26. More Problems Justice Justice U. seems to violate our notions of justice U. seems to violate our notions of justice A doctor may kill one healthy patient to save 5 terminally ill patients A doctor may kill one healthy patient to save 5 terminally ill patients Can we torture a terrorist to find the ticking timebomb? Can we torture a terrorist to find the ticking timebomb? Ends justify all means Ends justify all means

27. More Problems The ‘Pig Philosophy’ The ‘Pig Philosophy’ Wouldn’t we hook ourselves up to a happiness machine if there was one? Wouldn’t we hook ourselves up to a happiness machine if there was one? Arnie in Total Recall dreams he’s with a beautiful girl Arnie in Total Recall dreams he’s with a beautiful girl Are the pleasures of women’s mud wrestling just as valuable as the pleasures of ballet and mathematics? Are the pleasures of women’s mud wrestling just as valuable as the pleasures of ballet and mathematics?

28. More Problems Fairness Fairness Does distribution of happiness matter? Does distribution of happiness matter? ABCD Choice 1 1111 Choice 2 -2222 Choice 3 7

29. More Problems Lifestyle Lifestyle Must our life be directed entirely to the service of others? Must our life be directed entirely to the service of others?

30. Mill’s Version Utilitarianism Utilitarianism The creed which accepts as the foundation of morals Utility or the Greatest Happiness Principle, holds that actions are right in the proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to promote the reverse of happiness. By happiness is intended pleasure, and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain, and the privation of pleasure.

31. Mill’s Version Qualities of pleasure Qualities of pleasure Distinguish higher and lower pleasures Distinguish higher and lower pleasures Higher pleasures count for more points Higher pleasures count for more points Of two pleasures, if there be one to which all or almost all who have experience of both give a decided preference, irrespective of any feeling of moral obligation to prefer it, that is the more desirable pleasure

32. Mill’s Version Qualities of pleasure Qualities of pleasure Happiness is a matter of having superior pleasures Happiness is a matter of having superior pleasures Pleasures of the mind Pleasures of the mind Happiness is not correlated with contentment Happiness is not correlated with contentment the being whose capacities of enjoyment are low, has the greatest chance of having them fully satisfied; and a highly endowed being will always feel that any happiness which he can look for … is imperfect. … It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied

33. Acts and Rules Act utilitarianism Act utilitarianism An act is right if and only if it results in as much good as any available alternative

34. Acts and Rules Rule utilitarianism Rule utilitarianism An act is right if and only if it is the consequence of following a rule that, with other rules, if followed would lead to as much happiness as any other rules

35. Acts and Rules Rule utilitarianism Rule utilitarianism Solves practicality problem directly. Solves practicality problem directly. Rules aren’t just ad hoc, they’re essential to utilitarianism. Rules aren’t just ad hoc, they’re essential to utilitarianism.

36. Acts and Rules Rule utilitarianism Rule utilitarianism Solves practicality problem directly. Solves practicality problem directly. Rules aren’t just ad hoc, they’re essential to utilitarianism. Rules aren’t just ad hoc, they’re essential to utilitarianism. Solves justice? Solves justice? Maybe, if the rules are rules that meet standards of justice. Otherwise not. Maybe, if the rules are rules that meet standards of justice. Otherwise not.

37. Acts and Rules Rule utilitarianism Rule utilitarianism Solves practicality problem directly. Solves practicality problem directly. Rules aren’t just ad hoc, they’re essential to utilitarianism. Rules aren’t just ad hoc, they’re essential to utilitarianism. Solves justice? Solves justice? Maybe, if the rules are rules that meet standards of justice. Otherwise not. Maybe, if the rules are rules that meet standards of justice. Otherwise not. Knowledge problem solved. Knowledge problem solved. Not every act will be for the best Not every act will be for the best It’s easier to work out good rules than good acts It’s easier to work out good rules than good acts

38. Liberty On Liberty On Liberty The Harm Principle defends us from the state The Harm Principle defends us from the state The sole end for which mankind are warranted, individually or collectively, in interfering with the liberty of action of any of their number, is self-protection. That the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others.

39. Liberty On Liberty On Liberty The Harm Principle defends us from the state The Harm Principle defends us from the state The only part of the conduct of any one, for which he is amenable to society, is that which concerns others. In the part of which merely governs himself, his independence is, of right, absolute. Over himself, over his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign.

40. Liberty On Liberty On Liberty The Harm Principle defends us from the state The Harm Principle defends us from the state The public sphere The public sphere Do no harm to others Do no harm to others The private sphere The private sphere No business of anyone else No business of anyone else Freedom of speech, association, thought, life-style, … Freedom of speech, association, thought, life-style, … Justified as a good for society Justified as a good for society

41. Liberty Free speech justified Free speech justified …the peculiar evil of silencing the expression of an opinion is, that it is robbing the human race; posterity as well as the existing generation; those who dissent from the opinion, still more those who hold it. If the opinion is right, they are deprived of the opportunity of exchanging error for truth: if wrong, they lose, what is almost as great a benefit, the clearer perception and livelier impression of truth, produced by its collision with error.

42. Liberty Harm Principle Harm Principle Prevents paternalism, which is generally bad Prevents paternalism, which is generally bad Provides a rule for public policy that is clear, easy to follow, not easy to fudge, not open to abuse Provides a rule for public policy that is clear, easy to follow, not easy to fudge, not open to abuse Is the best such rule Is the best such rule