1. + Section 6.1 & 6.2 Discrete Random Variables After this section, you should be able to… APPLY the concept of discrete random variables to a variety of statistical settings CALCULATE and INTERPRET the mean (expected value) of a discrete random variable CALCULATE and INTERPRET the standard deviation (and variance) of a discrete random variable COMBINE random variables and CALCULATE the resulting mean and standard deviation Learning Objectives

2. + Discrete and Continuous Random Variables Random Variable and Probability Distribution A probability model describes the possible outcomes of a chance process and the likelihood that those outcomes will occur. A numerical variable that describes the outcomes of a chance process is called a random variable. The probability model for a random variable is its probability distribution Definition: A random variable takes numerical values that describe the outcomes of some chance process. The probability distribution of a random variable gives its possible values and their probabilities. Example: Consider tossing a fair coin 3 times. Define X = the number of heads obtained X = 0: TTT X = 1: HTT THT TTH X = 2: HHT HTH THH X = 3: HHH Value0123 Probability1/83/8 1/8

3. + Discrete Random Variables There are two main types of random variables: discrete and continuous. If we can find a way to list all possible outcomes for a random variable and assign probabilities to each one, wehave a discrete random variable. Discrete and Continuous Random Variables A discrete random variable X takes a fixed set of possible values with gaps between. The probability distribution of a discrete random variable X lists the values x i and their probabilities p i : Value: x 1 x 2 x 3 … Probability: p 1 p 2 p 3 … The probabilities p i must satisfy two requirements: 1.Every probability p i is a number between 0 and 1. 2.The sum of the probabilities is 1. To find the probability of any event, add the probabilities p i of the particular values x i that make up the event. Discrete Random Variables and Their Probability Distributions

4. + Example: Babies’ Health at Birth Read the example on page 343.(a) Show that the probability distribution for X is legitimate. (b) Make a histogram of the probability distribution. Describe what you see. (c) Apgar scores of 7 or higher indicate a healthy baby. What is P ( X ≥ 7)? (a) All probabilities are between 0 and 1 and they add up to 1. This is a legitimate probability distribution. (b) The left-skewed shape of the distribution suggests a randomly selected newborn will have an Apgar score at the high end of the scale. There is a small chance of getting a baby with a score of 5 or lower. (c) P(X ≥ 7) =.908 We’d have a 91 % chance of randomly choosing a healthy baby. Value:012345678910 Probability:0.0010.0060.0070.0080.0120.0200.0380.0990.3190.4370.053

5. + Mean of a Discrete Random Variable When analyzing discrete random variables, we’ll follow the same strategy we used with quantitative data – describe the shape,center, and spread, and identify any outliers. The mean of any discrete random variable is an average of the possible outcomes, with each outcome weighted by itsprobability. Discrete and Continuous Random Variables Definition: Suppose that X is a discrete random variable whose probability distribution is Value: x 1 x 2 x 3 … Probability: p 1 p 2 p 3 … To find the mean (expected value) of X, multiply each possible value by its probability, then add all the products:

6. + Example: Apgar Scores – What’s Typical? Consider the random variable X = Apgar Score Compute the mean of the random variable X and interpret it in context. Value:012345678910 Probability:0.0010.0060.0070.0080.0120.0200.0380.0990.3190.4370.053 The mean Apgar score of a randomly selected newborn is 8.128. This is the long- term average Agar score of many, many randomly chosen babies. Note: The expected value does not need to be a possible value of X or an integer! It is a long-term average over many repetitions.

7. + Standard Deviation of a Discrete Random Variable Since we use the mean as the measure of center for a discrete random variable, we’ll use the standard deviation as our measure ofspread. The definition of the variance of a random variable is similar to the definition of the variance for a set of quantitative data. Discrete and Continuous Random Variables Definition: Suppose that X is a discrete random variable whose probability distribution is Value: x 1 x 2 x 3 … Probability: p 1 p 2 p 3 … and that µ X is the mean of X. The variance of X is To get the standard deviation of a random variable, take the square root of the variance.

8. + Example: Apgar Scores – How Variable Are They? Consider the random variable X = Apgar Score Compute the standard deviation of the random variable X and interpret it in context. Value:012345678910 Probability:0.0010.0060.0070.0080.0120.0200.0380.0990.3190.4370.053 The standard deviation of X is 1.437. On average, a randomly selected baby’s Apgar score will differ from the mean 8.128 by about 1.4 units. Variance

9. + Combining Random Variables So far, we have looked at settings that involve a single random variable. Many interesting statistics problems require us to examine two ormore random variables. Let’s investigate the result of adding and subtracting random variables. Let X = the number of passengers on a randomly selected trip with Pete’s Jeep Tours. Y = the number of passengers on a randomly selected trip with Erin’s Adventures. Define T = X + Y. What are the mean and variance of T ? Transforming and Combining Random Variables Passengers x i 23456 Probability p i 0.150.250.350.200.05 Passengers y i 2345 Probability p i 0.30.40.20.1 Mean µ X = 3.75 Standard Deviation σ X = 1.090 Mean µ Y = 3.10 Standard Deviation σ Y = 0.943

10. + Combining Random Variables How many total passengers can Pete and Erin expect on a randomly selected day? Since Pete expects µ X = 3.75 and Erin expects µ Y = 3.10, they will average a total of 3.75 + 3.10 = 6.85 passengers per trip.We can generalize this result as follows: Transforming and Combining Random Variables For any two random variables X and Y, if T = X + Y, then the expected value of T is E(T) = µ T = µ X + µ Y In general, the mean of the sum of several random variables is the sum of their means. Mean of the Sum of Random Variables How much variability is there in the total number of passengers who go on Pete’s and Erin’s tours on a randomly selected day? To determine this, we need to find the probability distribution of T.

11. + Combining Random Variables The only way to determine the probability for any value of T is if X and Y are independent random variables. Transforming and Combining Random Variables Definition: If knowing whether any event involving X alone has occurred tells us nothing about the occurrence of any event involving Y alone, and vice versa, then X and Y are independent random variables. Probability models often assume independence when the random variables describe outcomes that appear unrelated to each other. You should always ask whether the assumption of independence seems reasonable. In our investigation, it is reasonable to assume X and Y are independent since the siblings operate their tours in different parts of the country.

12. + Combining Random Variables As the preceding example illustrates, when we add two independent random variables, their variances add. Standard deviations do not add. Transforming and Combining Random Variables Variance of the Sum of Random Variables Remember that you can add variances only if the two random variables are independent, and that you can NEVER add standard deviations! For any two independent random variables X and Y, if T = X + Y, then the variance of T is In general, the variance of the sum of several independent random variables is the sum of their variances.

13. + Combining Random Variables We can perform a similar investigation to determine what happens when we define a random variable as the difference of two randomvariables. In summary, we find the following: Transforming and Combining Random Variables Variance of the Difference of Random Variables For any two independent random variables X and Y, if D = X - Y, then the variance of D is In general, the variance of the difference of two independent random variables is the sum of their variances. For any two random variables X and Y, if D = X - Y, then the expected value of D is E(D) = µ D = µ X - µ Y In general, the mean of the difference of several random variables is the difference of their means. The order of subtraction is important! Mean of the Difference of Random Variables

14. + Section 6.1 Discrete and Continuous Random Variables In this section, we learned that… A random variable is a variable taking numerical values determined by the outcome of a chance process. The probability distribution of a random variable X tells us what the possible values of X are and how probabilities are assigned to those values. A discrete random variable has a fixed set of possible values with gaps between them. The probability distribution assigns each of these values a probability between 0 and 1 such that the sum of all the probabilities is exactly 1. Summary

15. + Section 6.1 Discrete and Continuous Random Variables In this section, we learned that… The mean of a random variable is the long-run average value of the variable after many repetitions of the chance process. It is also known as the expected value of the random variable. The expected value of a discrete random variable X is The variance of a random variable is the average squared deviation of the values of the variable from their mean. The standard deviation is the square root of the variance. For a discrete random variable X, Summary

16. + Section 6.2 Transforming and Combining Random Variables In this section, we learned that… If X and Y are any two random variables, If X and Y are independent random variables Summary