1. Unemployment Gavin Cameron Monday 25 July 2005 Oxford University Business Economics Programme

2. introduction “When in any country the demand for those who live by wages… is continually increasing; when every year furnishes employment for a greater number than had been employed the year before, the workmen have no occasion to combine to raise their wages. The scarcity of hands occasions competition among masters, who bid against one another, in order to get workmen…” Adam Smith (1776)

3. job separation and job finding The workforce= employed + unemployed L=E+U When unemployment is stable, the number of job separations must equal the number of jobs found. sE=fU but since E=L-U s(L-U)=fU, divide both sides by L to obtain s(1-U/L)=fU/L and solve for U/L to find U/L= s/(s+f) The steady-state unemployment rate is an increasing function of the job separation rate and a decreasing function of the job finding rate.

4. the labour supply decision When real wages rise, the budget line rotates around point A (the endowment of time remains unchanged) and becomes steeper. This allows both consumption and leisure to increase at the same time (income effect). Because leisure is more expensive, however, some is given up (substitution effect). In the case depicted here, the substitution effect dominates (very likely in short-run, questionable in long-run).

5. the supply of labour real wage employment Individual Aggregate The aggregate curve is less steep than for an individual since new workers enter the workforce as wages rise.

6. the demand for labour real wage employment labour demand, Ld A competitive firm demands labour up until the point where MC=MR, that is W=MPL*P, which is the same as W/P=MPL As more workers are added into the workforce, for a given level of capital and technology, the marginal product of labour, and hence the demand for labour, falls.

7. the natural rate of unemployment real wage employment labour demand, Ld labour supply, Ls workforce natural rate equilibrium employment equilibrium wage

8. the natural rate and the NAIRU The natural rate model assumes that markets clear and that there is competition in all markets. In fact, the labour market may be dominated by unions. If so, there is bargaining between unions and firms. Other things being equal, this will raise the level of unemployment for any given real wage. Also, goods markets may be dominated by a few large sellers (imperfect competition) in which case the labour demand curve may be less steep, possibly even horizontal.

9. wage bargaining Unemployment is the means by which the competing claims of employers and unions are reconciled. Unions bargain over wages relative to prices (the wage-setting curve) and reduce their demands when unemployment is high. Unions care about the employed (insiders) without caring too much about the unemployed (outsiders). Employers set prices relative to wages: this leads to a relatively flat labour demand schedule (the price-setting curve).

10. wage-setting and price-setting real wage employment labour demand, Ld (price-setting) labour supply, Ls workforce wage-setting

11. the NRU and the NAIRU real wage employment labour supply, Ls workforce natural rate NAIRU wage-setting labour demand, Ld (price-setting)

12. two views of the labour market The natural rate model suggests that most equilibrium unemployment is voluntary in the sense that workers could find jobs at the current real wage, but choose not to. The NAIRU model suggests that some equilibrium unemployment is involuntary in the sense that workers would like to work at the current real wage but cannot find jobs.

13. a monopsony labour market real wage employment labour demand Ld labour supply Ls marginal cost of labour a monopsonist who pays all workers the same equates its demand for labour with its marginal cost when setting employment Wm Wc EmEc Under monopsony, employment and wages are less than under PC. The monopsonist who must pay the same wage to all workers equates the maginal cost of labour with MP of labour, at Em, and hence pays Wm.

14. efficiency wages In 1914, the Ford Motor Company paid its workers $5 per day when the going rate was between $2 and $3. Why? “A low wage business is always insecure… The payment of five dollars a day for an eight hour day was one of the finest cost-cutting moves we ever made”, Henry Ford Why would this policy reduce costs? Workers might work harder and staff turnover might be reduced because workers don’t want to run the risk of a big cut in wages. The firm may also attract better quality workers. If many firms pay efficiency wages, it will be harder for the unemployed to find jobs, and so unemployment will be higher.

15. the rising UK NAIRU, 1956 to 1987 1956-591960-681969-731974-801981-87 Unemployment %2.22.63.45.211.1 NAIRU %2.22.73.86.16.6 Change in NAIRU+0.5+1.1+2.3+0.5 -North Sea Oil+0.0 -0.3-2.6 -Terms of Trade-0.4-0.1+1.5+1.3 -Skill mismatch+0.1+0.3+0.6+1.5 -Benefits+0.3+0.6-0.3+0.5 -Unions+0.4+0.3+0.8+0.1 -Tax wedge+0.1+0 -0.3

16. how to reduce unemployment Retraining and work experience schemes for long-term unemployed and unskilled; Reform of the benefit system, especially duration; Limitations on union power – closed shops, secondary picketing, secret ballots; Changes to wage bargaining, especially increased employer coordination; Tax reform (lower payroll taxes for the unskilled); Increased labour mobility.

17. how not to reduce unemployment Cunning demand-side policies (unlikely to have much effect in the long-run, plus very expensive); Job-sharing or cuts in working hours; Increased investment by firms (although this will raise wages); Protectionism (any benefit to workers massively outweighed by costs to consumers).

18. Source: OECD (2005)

19. summary “When large numbers of people are out of work…. unemployment invariably follows”, Calvin Coolidge (US President, 1923-1929).

20. syndicate topics what are the current trends in unemployment around the world? would unemployment fall if working hours were cut? is competition from the South a cause of unemployment in the North? why has the relative pay of the unskilled fallen since 1980? do firms pay workers their marginal product?