1. CHAPTER 18 The Expansion of Europe, 1650–1800

2. I. Working the Land A. The Legacy of the Open-Field System
2. Traditional Village Rights
3. Social Conditions
B. The Agricultural Revolution (1650–1850)
1. Eliminating the Fallow
2. The Enclosure Movement
3. Old and New
I. Working the Land
A. The Legacy of the Open-Field System
1. The Open-Field System – The land was divided into several strips, the fields were open and the strips were not enclosed into small plots by hedges or fences. To prevent soil exhaustion, some of the fields were left fallow (either on a 2- or 3-year rotation) and crops were rotated.
2. Traditional Village Rights – Open meadows were used for hay and animal pasture, poor women would glean grain, and the woodlands were held in common (for firewood, berries, and building materials).
3. Social Conditions – The state and landlords levied heavy taxes and high rents – The peasants were worst off in Eastern Europe where some had to work 5 or 6 days on the lords’ land with no pay and somewhat better off in Western Europe, where serfdom had been abolished.
B. The Agricultural Revolution (1650–1850)
1. Eliminating the Fallow – Meant alternating grain with nitrogen-storing crops (peas, beans, turnips, potatoes, clovers, and grasses), which in turn meant better feed for animals, more fodder, hay, and root crops for the winter months, larger herds of cattle and sheep, more meat and better diets, more manure for fertilizer, and more grain for bread.
2. The Enclosure Movement - The agricultural innovators (experimental scientists, some governmental officials, and a few big landowners) enclosed the individual shares of the common pastureland, believing that the new methods of crop rotation were not possible within the tradition of open fields and common rights.
3. Old and New – Poor, rural people opposed enclosure since their survival was at stake. In some countries, they found allies in the nobility, since they were wary of the financial costs of purchasing and enclosing land. The result – the new and old systems stood side by side as late as the 19th century in some parts of Western Europe.

3. I. Working the Land C. The Leadership of the Low Countries and England
1. The Dutch Initiative
2. Agricultural Innovation in England
3. Market-Driven Estate Agriculture
I. Working the Land
C. The Leadership of the Low Countries and England
1.The Dutch Initiative – The Dutch were forced to take the lead in draining marshes and sea marshes, since the Low Countries were one of the most densely populated regions in Europe and had a growing urban population.
2. Agricultural Innovation in England – Dutch experts helped drain the extensive fens (marshes) in rainy England – Jethro Tull (1674–1741) – son of the Enlightenment who developed better farming methods – by 1870, English farmers were producing 300 percent more food than they had produced in 1700.
3. Market-driven Estate Agriculture – A tiny minority of English and Scottish landowners held most of the land, relying on an ever smaller number of landless laborers for their workforce. In no other European country did the proletarianism (transformation of small peasant farmers into landless rural wage-earners) go so far.

4. II. The Beginning of the Population Explosion
A. Long-standing Obstacles to Population Growth
1. Prior to 1700
2. Demographic Crisis
B. The New Pattern of the Eighteenth Century
1. Disappearance of the Bubonic Plague
2. Improvements in the Water Supply and Sewage
3. Safeguarding the Food Supply
4. Medical Advances
II. The Beginning of the Population Explosion
A. Long-standing Obstacles to Population Growth
1. Prior to 1700 – Irregular cyclical patterns characterized by sudden drops in population (1300s, 1600s).
2. Demographic Crisis – Brought on by famine (result of low crop yields and periodical crop failures), epidemic disease (the Black Plague), and war (the 100 Years’ War, the 30 Years’ War, in which more than 2/3 of the inhabitants died in some German states).
B. The New Pattern of the Eighteenth Century (Population growth (1720–1789, and especially after 1750 because of a decline in mortality).
1. Disappearance of the Bubonic Plague (because of quarantine and luck) – 1720–1721 – the last outbreak of the plague in Marseilles.
2. Improvements in the Water Supply and Sewage (reduced the population of flies and mosquitoes).
3. Safeguarding the Food Supply – Advances in transportation meant that emergency food supplies could be brought in – introduction of new foods like potatoes.
4. Medical Advances (inoculation against smallpox) – But did not contribute that much to reducing mortality in the first 2/3 of the century.

5. III. The Growth of Rural Industry
A. The Putting-Out System
1. The Putting-Out System
2. Division of Production
3. Advantages
B. The Lives of Rural Textile Workers
1. Living Conditions
2. The Workers
3. Working Conditions
III. The Growth of Rural Industry (growth of cottage industry- manufacturing with hand tools in peasant cottages)
A. The Putting-Out System
1. The Putting-Out System – The merchant capitalist loaned, or put out, raw materials to cottage workers who processed the raw materials in their own homes and returned the finished product to the merchant.
2. Division of Production – Production could be broken into stages, as one group of workers would spin the raw wool into thread, another would bleach it, another would dye it, and another would weave it into cloth.
3. Advantages – Abundance of underemployed labor (landless and poor peasants). Production was unregulated in the countryside and did not need to meet guild standards. As a result, by 1700, English industry was more rural than urban.
B. The Lives of Rural Textile Workers
1. Living Conditions – A small one-roomed cottage with tiny windows, little space, few pieces of furniture, and a large weaver’s loom.
2.The Workers – All members of the family helped in the work (4–5 spinners were needed to keep one weaver steadily employed). In many cases, widows and single women worked in their spare time (hence, the origins of the word spinster).
3. Working Conditions – Conflicts between workers and employers, desperate conditions for female workers (low wages, desperate poverty), lack of supervision of cottage workers by the merchants (which led to new police powers over workers to punish theft, drunkenness, immorality, laziness or even holding on to small amounts of yarn or cloth).

7. III. The Growth of Rural Industry
C. The Industrious Revolution
1. Characteristics
2. Role of Women and Girls
3. Foundation of the Industrial Revolution
III. The Growth of Rural Industry
C. The Industrious Revolution
1. Characteristics – Reduced leisure time, faster pace of work, and the redirection of the labor of women and children away from the production of goods for household consumption and toward wage work outside the home.
2. Role of Women and Girls – Women earned low wages, but then played a proportionately greater role in household decision making.
3. Foundation of the Industrial Revolution – Households in which all members worked for wages rather than in a united family business. Wages created increased demand for consumer goods. Women’s use of their small surplus income (to buy items like stockings) helped spur the rapid growth of the textile industry.

8. IV. The Debate over Urban Guilds
A. Urban Guilds
1. The Peak of the Guild System
2. Reasons for the Guilds’ Success
3. Criticism of the Guilds
B. Adam Smith and Economic Liberalism
1. Adam Smith (1723–1790)
2. Economic Liberalism
IV. The Debate over Urban Guilds
A. Urban Guilds
1. The Peak of the Guild System – 17th and 18th centuries (in Paris, the number of guilds rose from 60 in 1672 to 129 in 1691).
2. Reasons for the Guilds’ Success – Privileges (exclusive right to produce and sell certain goods, access to restricted markets, the right to train apprentices, group identity, restrictions in membership to local Christians with work experience and money to pay fees, and automatic access of masters’ sons to their fathers’ guilds).
3. Criticism of the Guilds – Enlightenment critics saw them as outmoded and exclusionary institutions that thwarted progress and technical innovation and criticized their lack of access to women. In reality, this criticism was not altogether accurate, as male masters began to hire more female workers and some masters formed partnerships with non-guild workers.
B. Adam Smith and Economic Liberalism
1. Adam Smith (1723–1790) – Professor of philosophy, leading figure of the Scottish enlightenment, and author of Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776).
2. Economic Liberalism – Smith sought to place limits on governments – government should only provide defense against foreign invasion, maintain civil order with courts and police protection, and sponsor certain indispensable public works and institutions that could never adequately profit private investors. The pursuit of self-interest in a competitive market would be sufficient to improve the living conditions of citizens. Such views led to economic deregulation and attempts to end economic monopolies.

9. V. Building the Global Economy
A. Mercantilism and Colonial Wars
1. Mercantilism
2. Navigation Acts (1651, 1660, 1663)
3. Colonial Wars
V. Building the Global Economy
A. Mercantilism and Colonial Wars
1. Mercantilism – A system of economic regulations aimed at increasing the power of the state and creating a favorable balance of trade in order to increase a country’s stock of gold.
2. Navigation Acts (1651, 1660, 1663) – Goods imported into Europe from England and Scotland had to be carried by British-owned ships with British crews or on the ships of the country producing the article. They were a form of economic warfare, a successful attempt to supplant Dutch traders by giving British merchants and ship owners a monopoly on trade with British colonies.
3. Colonial Wars – A series of wars between Britain and France – War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1713) – Louis XIV lost Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and the Hudson Bay territory to Britain, the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748), the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763) , France lost Quebec and all of its remaining possessions on mainland North America.

11. V. Building the Global Economy
B. Eighteenth-Century Colonial Trade
1. Britain
2. France
3. Spain
V. Building the Global Economy
B. Eighteenth-Century Colonial Trade
1. Britain – Profited from exports of manufactured goods to its North American and West Indian colonies and to Ireland and India. They sold clocks, metal axes, firearms, chains, china, furniture, nails, etc. This trade helped make London the largest and most prosperous city in the West.
2. France – Profited from coffee and sugar plantations in the Caribbean which relied on slave labor (helped build a prospering merchant class in Paris, Bordeaux, and other large cities).
3. Spain – Gained Louisiana from France in 1763 and expanded its influence to northern California – profited from silver mining and system of debt peonage which allowed wealthy Spanish landowners to keep indigenous workers on their estates.

13. V. Building the Global Economy
C. The Atlantic Slave Trade
1. Statistics
2. Rise of Plantation Agriculture
3. The Shore Method
4. Movements for Abolition
D. Identities and Communities of the Atlantic World
1. Creole
2. Mixed-Race Populations
3. Conversion to Christianity
4. Jews
V. Building the Global Economy
C. The Atlantic Slave Trade
1. Statistics – Between 1450 and 1900, more than 12.5 million Africans were sent across the Atlantic; between 1701 and 1800, more than 6.25 million were sent over. Approximately 15 percent died in procurement and transit. At the peak in the 1780s, more than 80,000 slaves were sent across the Atlantic per year.
2. Rise of Plantation Agriculture – Made possible the growth in the slave trade. (Portuguese Brazil received more than 45 percent of the slaves, another 45 percent went to the many Caribbean colonies, and the colonies of mainland North America received 3 percent).
3. The Shore Method – After Britain became the undisputed leader in the slave trade after 1700, Europeans adopted the shore method of trading (Europeans ships sent boats ashore and invited African dealers to bring traders and slaves out to their ships). This led to wars between African states to obtain captives and population declines in Africa.
4. Movements for Abolition – Developed by the 1780s, particularly by the 1780s in Britain. Women were prominent in these movements, denouncing the immorality of bondage and the sadistic treatment of female slaves.
D. Identities and Communities of the Atlantic World
1. Creole – People of Spanish ancestry born in the Americas – lived on lavish plantation estates, maintained townhouses in colonial cities built on the European model but developed different identities, resenting the regulations and taxes imposed by colonial bureaucrats
2. Mixed-Race Populations – Children of Spanish conquistadores and the daughters of local rulers (in the Spanish, Portuguese and French colonies) masters often freed their mixed-race children in contrast to the British colonies, where mixed-race progeny were usually left in slavery.
3. Conversion to Christianity – Remarkable success by Catholic missionary efforts, relying on complex cultural exchanges and the understanding of native cultures and languages.
4. Jews – Eager participants in the new Atlantic colonies. Though not slaves, they did not equal status with Christians.

14. Have the class discuss this painting from a series on racial mixing from Jose de Alcibar and what it shows about race in the Spanish Empire.
1. Who are the figures in the painting, and how are they identified?
(Answers: a man, a woman, and a child. They are labeled as Spaniard, black woman, and mulatto.)
2. What is different about these labels? Why?
(Answers: The Spanish man is known by his ethnic or national identity, the woman and child are known by their race. Shows Spanish not interested in different African ethnic or national groups.)
3. The Spanish colonial government used the same racial classifications in these paintings to identify colonial people. Why do you think they were interested in identifying different kinds of racial mixing?
(Answers: concern about size of different populations, racial background also determines legal rights, reflects facts of daily life in the colonies, classifying races helps organize population, teaches people to accept their status.)

15. V. Building the Global Economy
E. Trade and Empire in Asia and the Pacific
1. The Dutch East India Company (1602)
2. The British East India Company
3. Australia
V. Building the Global Economy
E. Trade and Empire in Asia and the Pacific
1. The Dutch East India Company (1602) – Took over the Portuguese spice trade in the Indian Ocean and imposed direct control on the east Indian states with whom they traded. The Dutch hold in Asia faltered because of the company’s failure to diversify .
2. The British East India Company – relied on trade concessions from the Mughal emperor and increasingly intervened in local affairs. Accelerating the British ascendancy in India was the Treaty of Paris, which granted France’s possessions in India to the British.
3. Australia – Captain James Cook claimed Australia for the British in 1770.