1. Quiz on the math needed today What is the result of this integral:

2. Chapter 25 Electric Potential

3. A review of gravitational potential B When object of mass m is on ground level B, we define that it has zero gravitational potential energy. When we let go of this object, if will stay in place. When this object is moved to elevation A, we say that it has gravitational potential energy mgh. h is the distance from B to A. When we let go of this object, if will fall back to level B. A When this object is at elevation A, it has gravitational potential energy U A -U B = mgh. U A is the potential energy at point A with reference to point B. When the object falls from level A to level B, the potential energy change: ΔU =U B -U A The gravitational force does work and causes the potential energy change: W = mgh = U A -U B = -ΔU h mg We also know that the gravitational force is conservative: the work it does to the object only depends on the two levels A and B, not the path the object moves.

4. Introduction of the electric potential, a special case: the electric field is a constant. When a charge q 0 is placed inside an electric field, it experiences a force from the field: When the charge is released, the field moves it from A to B, doing work: If we define the electric potential energy of the charge at point A U A and B U B, then: If we define U B =0, then U A = q 0 Ed is the electric potential energy the charge has at point A. We can also say that the electric field has an electric potential at point A. When a charge is placed there, the charge acquires an electric potential energy that is the charge times this potential.

5. Electric Potential Energy, the general case When a charge is moved from point A to point B in an electric field, the charge’s electric potential energy inside this field is changed from U A to U B : The force on the charge is: So we have this final formula for electric potential energy and the work the field force does to the charge: When the motion is caused by the electric field force on the charge, the work this force does to the charge cause the change of its electric potential energy, so:

6. Electric Potential Energy, final discussion Electric force is conservative. The line integral does not depend on the path from A to B; it only depends on the locations of A and B. A B Line integral paths

7. The electric potential energy of a charge q 0 in the field of a charge Q? Q q0q0 R Reference point: We usually define the electric potential of a point charge to be zero (reference) at a point that is infinitely far away from the point charge. Applying this formula: Where point A is where the charge q 0 is, point B is infinitely far away. And the result is a scalar! So the final answer is

8. Electric Potential, the definition The potential energy per unit charge, U/q o, is the electric potential The potential is a characteristic of the field only The potential energy is a characteristic of the charge-field system The potential is independent of the value of q o The potential has a value at every point in an electric field The electric potential is As in the potential energy case, electric potential also needs a reference. So it is the potential difference ΔV that matters, not the potential itself, unless a reference is specified (then it is again ΔV).

9. Electric Potential, the formula The potential is a scalar quantity Since energy is a scalar As a charged particle moves in an electric field, it will experience a change in potential

10. Potential Difference in a Uniform Field The equations for electric potential can be simplified if the electric field is uniform: When: This is to say that electric field lines always point in the direction of decreasing electric potential

11. Electric Potential, final discussion The difference in potential is the meaningful quantity We often take the value of the potential to be zero at some convenient point in the field Electric potential is a scalar characteristic of an electric field, independent of any charges that may be placed in the field

12. Electric Potential, electric potential energy and Work When there is electric field, there is electric potential V. When a charge q 0 is in an electric field, this charge has an electric potential energy U in this electric field: U = q 0 V. When this charge q 0 is move by the electric field force, the work this field force does to this charge equals the electric potential energy change -ΔU: W = -ΔU = -q 0 ΔV.

13. Units The unit for electric potential energy is the unit for energy joule (J). The unit for electric potential is volt (V): 1 V = 1 J/C This unit comes from U = q0 V (here U is electric potential energy, V is electric potential, not the unit volt) It takes one joule of work to move a 1-coulomb charge through a potential difference of 1 volt But from We also have the unit for electric potential as 1 V = 1 (N/C)m So we have that 1 N/C (the unit of ) = 1 V/m This indicates that we can interpret the electric field as a measure of the rate of change with position of the electric potential

14. Electron-Volts, another unit often used in nuclear and particle physics Another unit of energy that is commonly used in atomic and nuclear physics is the electron-volt One electron-volt is defined as the energy a charge-field system gains or loses when a charge of magnitude e (an electron or a proton) is moved through a potential difference of 1 volt 1 eV = 1.60 x 10 -19 J

15. Direction of Electric Field, energy conservation As pointed out before, electric field lines always point in the direction of decreasing electric potential So when the electric field is directed downward, point B is at a lower potential than point A When a positive test charge moves from A to B, the charge-field system loses potential energy through doing work to this charge Where does this energy go? PLAY ACTIVE FIGURE 2502 It turns into the kinetic energy of the object (with a mass) that carries the charge q 0.

16. Equipotentials = equal potentials Points B and C are at a lower potential than point A Points B and C are at the same potential All points in a plane perpendicular to a uniform electric field are at the same electric potential The name equipotential surface is given to any surface consisting of a continuous distribution of points having the same electric potential

17. Charged Particle in a Uniform Field, Example Question: a positive charge (mass m) is released from rest and moves in the direction of the electric field. Find its speed at point B. Solution: The system loses potential energy: -ΔU=U A -U B =qEd The force and acceleration are in the direction of the field Use energy conservation to find its speed:

18. Potential and Point Charges A positive point charge produces a field directed radially outward The potential difference between points A and B will be

19. Potential and Point Charges, cont. The electric potential is independent of the path between points A and B It is customary to choose a reference potential of V = 0 at r A = ∞ Then the potential at some point r is

20. Electric Potential of a Point Charge The electric potential in the plane around a single point charge is shown The red line shows the 1/r nature of the potential

21. Electric Potential with Multiple Charges The electric potential due to several point charges is the sum of the potentials due to each individual charge This is another example of the superposition principle The sum is the algebraic sum V = 0 at r = ∞

22. Immediate application: Electric Potential of a Dipole The graph shows the potential (y-axis) of an electric dipole The steep slope between the charges represents the strong electric field in this region Work on the board to prove it.

23. Potential Energy of Multiple Charges Consider two charged particles The potential energy of the system is Use the active figure to move the charge and see the effect on the potential energy of the system PLAY ACTIVE FIGURE 2509

24. More About U of Multiple Charges If the two charges are the same sign, U is positive and external work (not the one from the field force) must be done to bring the charges together If the two charges have opposite signs, U is negative and external work is done to keep the charges apart

25. U with Multiple Charges, take 3 as an example If there are more than two charges, then find U for each pair of charges and add them For three charges: The result is independent of the order of the charges

26. Finding E From V This is straight forward FromWe have If E is one dimensional (say along the x-axis) If E is only a function of r (the point charge case):

27. Find V for an Infinite Sheet of Charge We know the a constant From We have The equipotential lines are the dashed blue lines The electric field lines are the brown lines The equipotential lines are everywhere perpendicular to the field lines d

28. E and V for a Point Charge The equipotential lines are the dashed blue lines The electric field lines are the brown lines The equipotential lines are everywhere perpendicular to the field lines

29. E and V for a Dipole The equipotential lines are the dashed blue lines The electric field lines are the brown lines The equipotential lines are everywhere perpendicular to the field lines

30. When you use a computer (program) to calculate electric Potential for a Continuous Charge Distribution: Consider a small charge element dq Treat it as a point charge The potential at some point due to this charge element is

31. V for a Continuous Charge Distribution, cont. To find the total potential, you need to integrate to include the contributions from all the elements This value for V uses the reference of V = 0 when P is infinitely far away from the charge distributions

32. V for a Uniformly Charged Ring P is located on the perpendicular central axis of the uniformly charged ring The ring has a radius a and a total charge Q

33. V for a Uniformly Charged Disk The ring has a radius R and surface charge density of σ P is along the perpendicular central axis of the disk

34. V for a Finite Line of Charge A rod of line ℓ has a total charge of Q and a linear charge density of λ

35. Prove that V is everywhere the same on a charged conductor in equilibrium Inside the conductor, because is 0,, so ΔV=0 On the surface, consider two points on the surface of the charged conductor as shown is always perpendicular to the displacement Therefore, Therefore, the potential difference between A and B is also zero

36. Summarize on potential V of a charged conductor in equilibrium V is constant everywhere on the surface of a charged conductor in equilibrium ΔV = 0 between any two points on the surface The surface of any charged conductor in electrostatic equilibrium is an equipotential surface Because the electric field is zero inside the conductor, we conclude that the electric potential is constant everywhere inside the conductor and equal to the value at the surface

37. E Compared to V The electric potential is a function of r The electric field is a function of r 2 The effect of a charge on the space surrounding it: The charge sets up a vector electric field which is related to the force The charge sets up a scalar potential which is related to the energy

38. Cavity in a Conductor Assume an irregularly shaped cavity is inside a conductor No charges are inside the cavity The electric field inside the conductor must be zero (can you prove that?)

39. Cavity in a Conductor, cont The electric field inside does not depend on the charge distribution on the outside surface of the conductor For all paths between A and B, A cavity surrounded by conducting walls is a field- free region as long as no charges are inside the cavity

40. Millikan Oil-Drop Experiment – Experimental Set-Up PLAY ACTIVE FIGURE

41. Millikan Oil-Drop Experiment Robert Millikan measured e, the magnitude of the elementary charge on the electron He also demonstrated the quantized nature of this charge Oil droplets pass through a small hole and are illuminated by a light

42. Oil-Drop Experiment, 2 With no electric field between the plates, the gravitational force and the drag force (viscous) act on the electron The drop reaches terminal velocity with

43. Oil-Drop Experiment, 3 When an electric field is set up between the plates The upper plate has a higher potential The drop reaches a new terminal velocity when the electrical force equals the sum of the drag force and gravity

44. Oil-Drop Experiment, final The drop can be raised and allowed to fall numerous times by turning the electric field on and off After many experiments, Millikan determined: q = ne where n = 0, -1, -2, -3, … e = 1.60 x 10 -19 C This yields conclusive evidence that charge is quantized Use the active figure to conduct a version of the experiment

45. Van de Graaff Generator Charge is delivered continuously to a high-potential electrode by means of a moving belt of insulating material The high-voltage electrode is a hollow metal dome mounted on an insulated column Large potentials can be developed by repeated trips of the belt Protons accelerated through such large potentials receive enough energy to initiate nuclear reactions

46. Electrostatic Precipitator An application of electrical discharge in gases is the electrostatic precipitator It removes particulate matter from combustible gases The air to be cleaned enters the duct and moves near the wire As the electrons and negative ions created by the discharge are accelerated toward the outer wall by the electric field, the dirt particles become charged Most of the dirt particles are negatively charged and are drawn to the walls by the electric field