1. Inference in first-order logic I CIS 391 – Introduction to Artificial Intelligence AIMA Chapter 9.1-9.2 (through p. 278) Chapter 9.5 (through p. 300)

2. CIS 391 - Intro to AI 2 Outline  Reducing first-order inference to propositional inference  Unification  Generalized Modus Ponens

3. CIS 391 - Intro to AI 3 Universal instantiation (UI)  Every instantiation of a universally quantified sentence is entailed by it:  v α Subst({v/g}, α) for any variable v and ground term g  E.g.,  x King(x)  Greedy(x)  Evil(x) yields any or all of: King(John)  Greedy(John)  Evil(John) King(Richard)  Greedy(Richard)  Evil(Richard) King(Father(John))  Greedy(Father(John))  Evil(Father(John)) …

4. CIS 391 - Intro to AI 4 Existential instantiation (EI)  For any sentence α, variable v, and constant symbol k that does not appear elsewhere in the knowledge base:  v α Subst({v/k}, α)  E.g.,  x Crown(x)  OnHead(x,John) yields: Crown(C1)  OnHead(C1,John) provided C1 is a new constant symbol, called a Skolem constant

5. CIS 391 - Intro to AI 5 Existential Instantiation continued  UI can be applied several times to add new sentences the new KB is logically equivalent to the old  EI can be applied once to replace the existential sentence the new KB is not equivalent to the old but it is satisfiable iff the old KB was satisfiable

6. CIS 391 - Intro to AI 6 Reduction to propositional inference Suppose the KB contains just the following:  x King(x)  Greedy(x)  Evil(x) King(John) Greedy(John) Brother(Richard,John) Instantiating the universal sentence in all possible ways, we have: King(John)  Greedy(John)  Evil(John) King(Richard)  Greedy(Richard)  Evil(Richard) King(John) Greedy(John) Brother(Richard,John)  The new KB is propositionalized: proposition symbols are King(John), Greedy(John), Evil(John), King(Richard), etc.

7. CIS 391 - Intro to AI 7 Reduction contd.  Claim: Every FOL KB can be propositionalized so as to preserve entailment (A ground sentence is entailed by new KB iff entailed by original KB)  Proof argument: (see text)  Problem: with function symbols, there are infinitely many ground terms, e.g., Father(Father(Father(John)))

8. CIS 391 - Intro to AI 8 Reduction contd. Theorem: Herbrand (1930). If a sentence α is entailed by an FOL KB, it is entailed by a finite subset of the propositionalized KB Idea: For n = 0 to ∞ do create a propositional KB by instantiating with depth-n terms see if α is entailed by this KB Problem: works if α is entailed, loops if α is not entailed Theorem: Turing (1936), Church (1936) Entailment for FOL is semidecidable (algorithms exist that say yes to every entailed sentence, but no algorithm exists that also says no to every nonentailed sentence.)

9. CIS 391 - Intro to AI 9 Practical Problems with propositionalization 1.Propositionalization seems to generate lots of irrelevant sentences. E.g., from:  x King(x)  Greedy(x)  Evil(x) King(John)  y Greedy(y) Brother(Richard,John) it seems obvious that Evil(John), but propositionalization produces lots of facts such as Greedy(Richard) that are irrelevant 2.With p k-ary predicates and n constants, there are p·n k instantiations.  With function symbols, it gets much, much worse!

10. CIS 391 - Intro to AI 10 Unification  We can get the inference Evil(John) immediately if we can find a substitution θ such that King(x) and Greedy(x) match King(John) and Greedy(y) θ = {x/John,y/John} works  Unify(α,β) = θ if αθ = βθ p q θ Knows(John,x) Knows(John,Jane) Knows(John,x)Knows(y,OJ) Knows(John,x) Knows(y,Mother(y)) Knows(John,x)Knows(x,OJ)

11. CIS 391 - Intro to AI 11 Unification  We can get the inference Evil(John) immediately if we can find a substitution θ such that King(x) and Greedy(x) match King(John) and Greedy(y) θ = {x/John,y/John} works  Unify(α,β) = θ if αθ = βθ p q θ Knows(John,x) Knows(John,Jane) {x/Jane}} Knows(John,x)Knows(y,OJ) Knows(John,x) Knows(y,Mother(y)) Knows(John,x)Knows(x,OJ)

12. CIS 391 - Intro to AI 12 Unification  We can get the inference Evil(John) immediately if we can find a substitution θ such that King(x) and Greedy(x) match King(John) and Greedy(y) θ = {x/John,y/John} works  Unify(α,β) = θ if αθ = βθ p q θ Knows(John,x) Knows(John,Jane) {x/Jane}} Knows(John,x)Knows(y,OJ) {x/OJ,y/John}} Knows(John,x) Knows(y,Mother(y)) Knows(John,x)Knows(x,OJ)

13. CIS 391 - Intro to AI 13 Unification  We can get the inference Evil(John) immediately if we can find a substitution θ such that King(x) and Greedy(x) match King(John) and Greedy(y) θ = {x/John,y/John} works  Unify(α,β) = θ if αθ = βθ p q θ Knows(John,x) Knows(John,Jane) {x/Jane}} Knows(John,x)Knows(y,OJ) {x/OJ,y/John}} Knows(John,x) Knows(y,Mother(y)){y/John,x/Mother(John)}} Knows(John,x)Knows(x,OJ)

14. CIS 391 - Intro to AI 14 Unification  We can get the inference Evil(John) immediately if we can find a substitution θ such that King(x) and Greedy(x) match King(John) and Greedy(y) θ = {x/John,y/John} works  Unify(α,β) = θ if αθ = βθ p q θ Knows(John,x) Knows(John,Jane) {x/Jane}} Knows(John,x)Knows(y,OJ) {x/OJ,y/John}} Knows(John,x) Knows(y,Mother(y)){y/John,x/Mother(John)}} Knows(John,x)Knows(x,OJ) fail

15. CIS 391 - Intro to AI 15 Unification  We can get the inference Evil(John) immediately if we can find a substitution θ such that King(x) and Greedy(x) match King(John) and Greedy(y) θ = {x/John,y/John} works  Unify(α,β) = θ if αθ = βθ p q θ Knows(John,x) Knows(John,Jane) {x/Jane}} Knows(John,x)Knows(y,OJ) {x/OJ,y/John}} Knows(John,x) Knows(y,Mother(y)){y/John,x/Mother(John)}} Knows(John,x)Knows(x,OJ) fail  Standardizing apart eliminates overlap of variables, e.g., Knows(z 17,OJ)

16. CIS 391 - Intro to AI 16 Unification  To unify Knows(John,x) and Knows(y,z), θ = {y/John, x/z } or θ = {y/John, x/John, z/John}  The first unifier is more general than the second.  There is a single most general unifier (MGU) that is unique up to renaming of variables. MGU = { y/John, x/z }

17. CIS 391 - Intro to AI 17 The unification algorithm

18. CIS 391 - Intro to AI 18 The unification algorithm

19. CIS 391 - Intro to AI 19 Generalized Modus Ponens (GMP) p 1 ', p 2 ', …, p n ', ( p 1  p 2  …  p n  q) qθ p 1 ' is King(John) p 1 is King(x) p 2 ' is Greedy(y) p 2 is Greedy(x) θ is {x/John,y/John} q is Evil(x) q θ is Evil(John)  GMP used with KB of definite clauses (exactly one positive literal)  All variables assumed universally quantified where p i 'θ = p i θ for all i

20. CIS 391 - Intro to AI 20 Soundness of GMP Need to show that p 1 ', …, p n ', (p 1  …  p n  q) ╞ qθ provided that p i' θ = p i θ for all i Lemma: For any definite clause p, we have p ╞ pθ by UI 1.(p 1  …  p n  q) ╞ (p 1  …  p n  q)θ = (p 1 θ  …  p n θ  qθ) 2.p 1 ', …, p n ' ╞ p 1 '  …  p n ' ╞ p 1 'θ  …  p n 'θ 3.From 1 and 2, qθ follows by ordinary Modus Ponens

21. CIS 391 - Intro to AI 21 Resolution: brief summary  Full first-order version: l 1  ···  l k, m 1  ···  m n ( l 1  ···  l i-1  l i+1  ···  l k  m 1  ···  m j-1  m j+1  ···  m n )θ where Unify ( l i,  m j ) = θ. The two clauses are assumed to be standardized apart so that they share no variables.  For example,  Rich(x)  Unhappy(x) Rich(Ken) Unhappy(Ken) with θ = {x/Ken}  Apply resolution steps to CNF(KB   α); complete for FOL

22. CIS 391 - Intro to AI 22 Conversion to CNF for FOL  Everyone who loves all animals is loved by someone:  x [  y Animal(y)  Loves(x,y)]  [  y Loves(y,x)] 1.Eliminate biconditionals and implications  x [  y  Animal(y)  Loves(x,y)]  [  y Loves(y,x)] 2.Move  inwards:  x p ≡  x  p,   x p ≡  x  p  x [  y  (  Animal(y)  Loves(x,y))]  [  y Loves(y,x)]  x [  y  Animal(y)   Loves(x,y)]  [  y Loves(y,x)]  x [  y Animal(y)   Loves(x,y)]  [  y Loves(y,x)]

23. CIS 391 - Intro to AI 23 Conversion to CNF contd. 3.Standardize variables: each quantifier should use a different one  x [  y Animal(y)   Loves(x,y)]  [  z Loves(z,x)] 4.Skolemize: a more general form of existential instantiation. Each existential variable is replaced by a Skolem function of the enclosing universally quantified variables:  x [Animal(F(x))   Loves(x,F(x))]  Loves(G(x),x) 5.Drop universal quantifiers: [Animal(F(x))   Loves(x,F(x))]  Loves(G(x),x) 6.Distribute  over  : [Animal(F(x))  Loves(G(x),x)]  [  Loves(x,F(x))  Loves(G(x),x)]

24. CIS 391 - Intro to AI 24 Example knowledge base  The law says that it is a crime for an American to sell weapons to hostile nations. The country Nono, an enemy of America, has some missiles, and all of its missiles were sold to it by Colonel West, who is American.  Prove that Col. West is a criminal

25. CIS 391 - Intro to AI 25 Example knowledge base contd.... it is a crime for an American to sell weapons to hostile nations: American(x)  Weapon(y)  Sells(x,y,z)  Hostile(z)  Criminal(x) Nono … has some missiles, i.e.,  x Owns(Nono,x)  Missile(x): Owns(Nono,M 1 ) and Missile(M 1 ) … all of its missiles were sold to it by Colonel West Missile(x)  Owns(Nono,x)  Sells(West,x,Nono) Missiles are weapons: Missile(x)  Weapon(x) An enemy of America counts as "hostile“: Enemy(x,America)  Hostile(x) West, who is American … American(West) The country Nono, an enemy of America … Enemy(Nono,America)

26. CIS 391 - Intro to AI 26 Resolution proof: definite clauses 

27. CIS 391 - Intro to AI 27 Example proof : Did Curiosity kill the cat?  Jack owns a dog. Every dog owner is an animal lover. No animal lover kills an animal. Either Jack or Curiosity killed the cat, who is named Tuna. Did Curiosity kill the cat?  The axioms can be represented as follows: A.(  x) Dog(x) ^ Owns(Jack,x) B.(  x) ((  y) Dog(y) ^ Owns(x, y)) => AnimalLover(x) C.(  x) AnimalLover(x) => (  y) Animal(y) => ~Kills(x,y) D.Kills(Jack,Tuna)  Kills(Curiosity,Tuna) E.Cat(Tuna) F.(  x) Cat(x) => Animal(x) (This and next 2 slides adapted from CMSC421 – Fall 2006, Univ. of Maryland)

28. CIS 391 - Intro to AI 28 Example: Did Curiosity kill the cat? 1.Dog(spike) 2.Owns(Jack,spike) 3.~Dog(y) v ~Owns(x, y) v AnimalLover(x) 4.~AnimalLover(x1) v ~Animal(y1) v ~Kills(x1,y1) 5. Kills(Jack,Tuna) v Kills(Curiosity,Tuna) 6. Cat(Tuna) 7. ~Cat(x2) v Animal(x2)

29. CIS 391 - Intro to AI 29 1.Dog(spike) 2.Owns(Jack,spike) 3.~Dog(y) v ~Owns(x, y) v AnimalLover(x) 4.~AnimalLover(x1) v ~Animal(y1) v ~Kills(x1,y1) 5. Kills(Jack,Tuna) v Kills(Curiosity,Tuna) 6. Cat(Tuna) 7. ~Cat(x2) v Animal(x2) 8.~Kills(Curiosity,Tuna) negated goal 9.Kills(Jack,Tuna) 5,8 10.~AnimalLover(Jack) V ~Animal(Tuna) 9,4 x1/Jack,y1/Tuna 11.~Dog(y) v ~Owns(Jack,y) V ~Animal(Tuna) 10,3 x/Jack 12.~Owns(Jack,spike) v ~Animal(Tuna) 11,1 13.~Animal(Tuna) 12,2 14.~Cat(Tuna) 13,7 x2/Tuna 15.False 14,6 Example: Did Curiosity kill the cat?