1. Monopolistic Competition and Oligopoly CHAPTER 12 © 2016 CENGAGE LEARNING. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MAY NOT BE COPIED, SCANNED, OR DUPLICATED, IN WHOLE OR IN PART, EXCEPT FOR USE AS PERMITTED IN A LICENSE DISTRIBUTED WITH A CERTAIN PRODUCT OR SERVICE OR OTHERWISE ON A PASSWORD-PROTECTED WEBSITE FOR CLASSROOM USE.

2. Summary of Perfect Competition, Monopoly, and Monopolistic Competition © 2016 CENGAGE LEARNING. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MAY NOT BE COPIED, SCANNED, OR DUPLICATED, IN WHOLE OR IN PART, EXCEPT FOR USE AS PERMITTED IN A LICENSE DISTRIBUTED WITH A CERTAIN PRODUCT OR SERVICE OR OTHERWISE ON A PASSWORD-PROTECTED WEBSITE FOR CLASSROOM USE.

3. Monopolistic competition is a market structure in which: ◦There are a large number of firms ◦The products produced by the different firms are differentiated ◦Entry and exit occur easily Product differentiation implies that the products are different enough that the producing firms exercise a “mini-monopoly” over their product. The firms compete more on product differentiation than on price. Entering firms produce close substitutes, not an identical or standardized product. What is Monopolistic Competition?

4. A Monopolistically Competitive Firm: Above Normal Profit © 2016 CENGAGE LEARNING. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MAY NOT BE COPIED, SCANNED, OR DUPLICATED, IN WHOLE OR IN PART, EXCEPT FOR USE AS PERMITTED IN A LICENSE DISTRIBUTED WITH A CERTAIN PRODUCT OR SERVICE OR OTHERWISE ON A PASSWORD-PROTECTED WEBSITE FOR CLASSROOM USE.

5. A Monopolistically Competitive Firm: Normal Profit © 2016 CENGAGE LEARNING. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MAY NOT BE COPIED, SCANNED, OR DUPLICATED, IN WHOLE OR IN PART, EXCEPT FOR USE AS PERMITTED IN A LICENSE DISTRIBUTED WITH A CERTAIN PRODUCT OR SERVICE OR OTHERWISE ON A PASSWORD-PROTECTED WEBSITE FOR CLASSROOM USE.

6. A Monopolistically Competitive Firm: Economic Loss © 2016 CENGAGE LEARNING. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MAY NOT BE COPIED, SCANNED, OR DUPLICATED, IN WHOLE OR IN PART, EXCEPT FOR USE AS PERMITTED IN A LICENSE DISTRIBUTED WITH A CERTAIN PRODUCT OR SERVICE OR OTHERWISE ON A PASSWORD-PROTECTED WEBSITE FOR CLASSROOM USE.

7. Entry and Normal Profit © 2016 CENGAGE LEARNING. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MAY NOT BE COPIED, SCANNED, OR DUPLICATED, IN WHOLE OR IN PART, EXCEPT FOR USE AS PERMITTED IN A LICENSE DISTRIBUTED WITH A CERTAIN PRODUCT OR SERVICE OR OTHERWISE ON A PASSWORD-PROTECTED WEBSITE FOR CLASSROOM USE.

8. Perfect Competition and Monopolistic Competition Compared © 2016 CENGAGE LEARNING. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MAY NOT BE COPIED, SCANNED, OR DUPLICATED, IN WHOLE OR IN PART, EXCEPT FOR USE AS PERMITTED IN A LICENSE DISTRIBUTED WITH A CERTAIN PRODUCT OR SERVICE OR OTHERWISE ON A PASSWORD-PROTECTED WEBSITE FOR CLASSROOM USE.

9. Nonprice Competition © 2016 CENGAGE LEARNING. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MAY NOT BE COPIED, SCANNED, OR DUPLICATED, IN WHOLE OR IN PART, EXCEPT FOR USE AS PERMITTED IN A LICENSE DISTRIBUTED WITH A CERTAIN PRODUCT OR SERVICE OR OTHERWISE ON A PASSWORD-PROTECTED WEBSITE FOR CLASSROOM USE. The firm attempts to establish its product as a different product from that offered by its rivals. Differentiation means that in the consumer’s mind, the product is not the same. Marketing is often the key to successful differentiation. Firms may differentiate products by perceived quality, reliability, color, style, safety features, packaging, purchase terms, warranties and guarantees, location, availability (hours of operation) or any other features. Brand names may signal information regarding the product, reducing consumer risk.

10. Advertising, Prices, and Profits © 2016 CENGAGE LEARNING. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MAY NOT BE COPIED, SCANNED, OR DUPLICATED, IN WHOLE OR IN PART, EXCEPT FOR USE AS PERMITTED IN A LICENSE DISTRIBUTED WITH A CERTAIN PRODUCT OR SERVICE OR OTHERWISE ON A PASSWORD-PROTECTED WEBSITE FOR CLASSROOM USE.

11. Location under Monopolistic Competition © 2016 CENGAGE LEARNING. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MAY NOT BE COPIED, SCANNED, OR DUPLICATED, IN WHOLE OR IN PART, EXCEPT FOR USE AS PERMITTED IN A LICENSE DISTRIBUTED WITH A CERTAIN PRODUCT OR SERVICE OR OTHERWISE ON A PASSWORD-PROTECTED WEBSITE FOR CLASSROOM USE.

12. Brand Name © 2016 CENGAGE LEARNING. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MAY NOT BE COPIED, SCANNED, OR DUPLICATED, IN WHOLE OR IN PART, EXCEPT FOR USE AS PERMITTED IN A LICENSE DISTRIBUTED WITH A CERTAIN PRODUCT OR SERVICE OR OTHERWISE ON A PASSWORD-PROTECTED WEBSITE FOR CLASSROOM USE. A brand name is valuable to a firm; it makes the demand less elastic and can enable the firm to earn higher profits. Once a consumer has had a positive experience with a good, the price elasticity of demand for that good typically decreases—the consumer becomes loyal to the product.

13. Oligopoly © 2016 CENGAGE LEARNING. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MAY NOT BE COPIED, SCANNED, OR DUPLICATED, IN WHOLE OR IN PART, EXCEPT FOR USE AS PERMITTED IN A LICENSE DISTRIBUTED WITH A CERTAIN PRODUCT OR SERVICE OR OTHERWISE ON A PASSWORD-PROTECTED WEBSITE FOR CLASSROOM USE. An oligopoly is a market structure characterized by: ◦Few firms ◦Either standardized or differentiated products ◦Difficult entry A key characteristic of oligopolies is that each firm can affect the market, making each firm’s choices dependent on the choices of the other firms. They are interdependent.

14. Interdependence © 2016 CENGAGE LEARNING. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MAY NOT BE COPIED, SCANNED, OR DUPLICATED, IN WHOLE OR IN PART, EXCEPT FOR USE AS PERMITTED IN A LICENSE DISTRIBUTED WITH A CERTAIN PRODUCT OR SERVICE OR OTHERWISE ON A PASSWORD-PROTECTED WEBSITE FOR CLASSROOM USE. The importance of interdependence is that it leads to strategic behavior. Strategic behavior is the behavior that occurs when what is best for A depends upon what B does, and what is best for B depends upon what A does. Oligopolistic behavior includes both ruthless competition and cooperation.

15. Game Theory © 2016 CENGAGE LEARNING. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MAY NOT BE COPIED, SCANNED, OR DUPLICATED, IN WHOLE OR IN PART, EXCEPT FOR USE AS PERMITTED IN A LICENSE DISTRIBUTED WITH A CERTAIN PRODUCT OR SERVICE OR OTHERWISE ON A PASSWORD-PROTECTED WEBSITE FOR CLASSROOM USE. Strategic behavior has been analyzed using the mathematical techniques of game theory. Game theory provides a description of oligopolistic behavior as a series of strategic moves and countermoves.

16. Dominant Strategy © 2016 CENGAGE LEARNING. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MAY NOT BE COPIED, SCANNED, OR DUPLICATED, IN WHOLE OR IN PART, EXCEPT FOR USE AS PERMITTED IN A LICENSE DISTRIBUTED WITH A CERTAIN PRODUCT OR SERVICE OR OTHERWISE ON A PASSWORD-PROTECTED WEBSITE FOR CLASSROOM USE. In an oligopoly, firms try to achieve a dominant strategy—a strategy that produces better results no matter what strategy other firms follow. The interdependence of oligopolies decisions can often lead to the prisoners’ dilemma.

17. Dilemma: Dominant Strategy Game © 2016 CENGAGE LEARNING. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MAY NOT BE COPIED, SCANNED, OR DUPLICATED, IN WHOLE OR IN PART, EXCEPT FOR USE AS PERMITTED IN A LICENSE DISTRIBUTED WITH A CERTAIN PRODUCT OR SERVICE OR OTHERWISE ON A PASSWORD-PROTECTED WEBSITE FOR CLASSROOM USE.

18. Prisoners’ Dilemma © 2016 CENGAGE LEARNING. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MAY NOT BE COPIED, SCANNED, OR DUPLICATED, IN WHOLE OR IN PART, EXCEPT FOR USE AS PERMITTED IN A LICENSE DISTRIBUTED WITH A CERTAIN PRODUCT OR SERVICE OR OTHERWISE ON A PASSWORD-PROTECTED WEBSITE FOR CLASSROOM USE.

19. Many-Person Prisoners’ Dilemma © 2016 CENGAGE LEARNING. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MAY NOT BE COPIED, SCANNED, OR DUPLICATED, IN WHOLE OR IN PART, EXCEPT FOR USE AS PERMITTED IN A LICENSE DISTRIBUTED WITH A CERTAIN PRODUCT OR SERVICE OR OTHERWISE ON A PASSWORD-PROTECTED WEBSITE FOR CLASSROOM USE.

20. Nash Equilibrium © 2016 CENGAGE LEARNING. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MAY NOT BE COPIED, SCANNED, OR DUPLICATED, IN WHOLE OR IN PART, EXCEPT FOR USE AS PERMITTED IN A LICENSE DISTRIBUTED WITH A CERTAIN PRODUCT OR SERVICE OR OTHERWISE ON A PASSWORD-PROTECTED WEBSITE FOR CLASSROOM USE. A Nash equilibrium occurs when a unilateral move by a participant does not make the participant better off.

21. Cooperation and Cartels © 2016 CENGAGE LEARNING. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MAY NOT BE COPIED, SCANNED, OR DUPLICATED, IN WHOLE OR IN PART, EXCEPT FOR USE AS PERMITTED IN A LICENSE DISTRIBUTED WITH A CERTAIN PRODUCT OR SERVICE OR OTHERWISE ON A PASSWORD-PROTECTED WEBSITE FOR CLASSROOM USE. If the firms in an oligopoly cooperate, they may earn more profits than if they act independently. Collusion, which leads to secret cooperative agreements, is illegal in the U.S., although it is legal and acceptable in many other countries. Price-Leadership Cartels may form in which firms simply do whatever a single leading firm in the industry does. This avoids strategic behavior and requires no illegal collusion.

22. Cooperation Game © 2016 CENGAGE LEARNING. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MAY NOT BE COPIED, SCANNED, OR DUPLICATED, IN WHOLE OR IN PART, EXCEPT FOR USE AS PERMITTED IN A LICENSE DISTRIBUTED WITH A CERTAIN PRODUCT OR SERVICE OR OTHERWISE ON A PASSWORD-PROTECTED WEBSITE FOR CLASSROOM USE.

23. Cartels © 2016 CENGAGE LEARNING. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MAY NOT BE COPIED, SCANNED, OR DUPLICATED, IN WHOLE OR IN PART, EXCEPT FOR USE AS PERMITTED IN A LICENSE DISTRIBUTED WITH A CERTAIN PRODUCT OR SERVICE OR OTHERWISE ON A PASSWORD-PROTECTED WEBSITE FOR CLASSROOM USE. A cartel is an organization of independent firms whose purpose is to control and limit production and maintain or increase prices and profits. Like collusion, cartels are illegal in the United States. Conditions necessary for a cartel to be stable (maintainable): ◦There are few firms in the industry. ◦There are significant barriers to entry. ◦An identical product is produced. ◦There are few opportunities to keep actions secret. ◦There are no legal barriers to sharing agreements.

24. OPEC as an Example of a Cartel © 2016 CENGAGE LEARNING. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MAY NOT BE COPIED, SCANNED, OR DUPLICATED, IN WHOLE OR IN PART, EXCEPT FOR USE AS PERMITTED IN A LICENSE DISTRIBUTED WITH A CERTAIN PRODUCT OR SERVICE OR OTHERWISE ON A PASSWORD-PROTECTED WEBSITE FOR CLASSROOM USE. OPEC: Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries. Attempts to set prices high enough to earn member countries significant profits, but not so high as to encourage dramatic increases in oil exploration or the pursuit of alternative energy sources. Controls prices by setting production quotas for member countries. Such cartels are difficult to sustain because members have large incentives to cheat, exceeding their quotas.

25. The Diamond Cartel © 2016 CENGAGE LEARNING. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MAY NOT BE COPIED, SCANNED, OR DUPLICATED, IN WHOLE OR IN PART, EXCEPT FOR USE AS PERMITTED IN A LICENSE DISTRIBUTED WITH A CERTAIN PRODUCT OR SERVICE OR OTHERWISE ON A PASSWORD-PROTECTED WEBSITE FOR CLASSROOM USE. In 1870 huge diamond mines in South Africa flooded the gem market with diamonds. Investors at the time wanted to control production and created De Beers Consolidated Mines, Ltd., which quickly took control of all aspects of the world diamond trade. The Diamond Cartel, headed by DeBeers, has been extremely successful. While other commodities’ prices, such as gold and silver respond to economic conditions, diamonds’ prices have increased every year since the Depression. This success has been achieved by DeBeers’ influence on the supply of diamonds, but also via the cartel’s influence on demand. In the 1940s DeBeers’ instigated an advertising campaign making the diamond a symbol of status and romance.

26. Behavior of a Cartel © 2016 CENGAGE LEARNING. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MAY NOT BE COPIED, SCANNED, OR DUPLICATED, IN WHOLE OR IN PART, EXCEPT FOR USE AS PERMITTED IN A LICENSE DISTRIBUTED WITH A CERTAIN PRODUCT OR SERVICE OR OTHERWISE ON A PASSWORD-PROTECTED WEBSITE FOR CLASSROOM USE.

27. Facilitating Practices © 2016 CENGAGE LEARNING. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MAY NOT BE COPIED, SCANNED, OR DUPLICATED, IN WHOLE OR IN PART, EXCEPT FOR USE AS PERMITTED IN A LICENSE DISTRIBUTED WITH A CERTAIN PRODUCT OR SERVICE OR OTHERWISE ON A PASSWORD-PROTECTED WEBSITE FOR CLASSROOM USE. Facilitating practices are actions by oligopolistic firms that can contribute to cooperation and collusion even thought the firms do not formally agree to cooperate. Cost-plus or mark-up pricing is a pricing policy whereby a firm computes its average costs of producing a product and then sets the price at some percentage above this cost.

28. Summary of Market Structures © 2016 CENGAGE LEARNING. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MAY NOT BE COPIED, SCANNED, OR DUPLICATED, IN WHOLE OR IN PART, EXCEPT FOR USE AS PERMITTED IN A LICENSE DISTRIBUTED WITH A CERTAIN PRODUCT OR SERVICE OR OTHERWISE ON A PASSWORD-PROTECTED WEBSITE FOR CLASSROOM USE.