2.  Italian peninsula is shaped like a boot and extends into the Mediterranean, which became a highway for trade and conquest.  At the top of the boot are the Alps, which block cold weather.  The Po and Tiber Rivers provide water for farming.  The Apennines Mountains extend down the length of the peninsula, but are not a rugged barrier.  Fertile plains, south of the Alps and west of the Apennines, provided for good farming.  Natural harbors and long rivers facilitated trade.  Easier to unify than Greece.

3.  patricians – members of the landholding upper class  plebians – farmers, merchants, artisans, and traders who made up the bulk of the Roman population - had little influence in government

4.  500 BCE - abandoned monarchy and set up a republic – govt. where officials are chosen by the people  senate - 300 patricians - served for life and ran the govt.  two consuls - elected for 1-year term by senate to supervise the govt. and command the armies, could veto (block) each other’s decisions

5.  dictator - chosen during war, a ruler with complete control over the govt. with emergency powers for six months  plebians wanted equal rights and representation  450 BCE - Laws of the Twelve Tables  gradual reforms were enacted

6.  Brave and loyal soldiers, superior military organization, and shrewd senatorial decisions led to military greatness.  Unpaid citizen soldiers evolved into army of paid professionals.  Conquered people had to acknowledge Roman leadership, pay taxes, and supply soldiers. They could keep their own customs, religion, money, and local government. Some gained citizenship.

7.  264-146 BCE : Rome vs. Carthage  Phoenician trading empire in present day Tunisia (North Africa).  Fought over control of the western Mediterranean.  Carthage was ultimately destroyed.

8.  gained control of Greece, Asia Minor, and Egypt  control of trade routes brought wealth from loot, taxes, and commerce

9.  wealthy landowners used slave labor, which hurt small farmers who were forced to sell their land and move to Rome  gap between rich and poor widened - political corruption increased  angry mobs rioted - rival generals competed for power  100 years of civil wars and slave uprisings

10.  general whose accomplishments and popularity intimidated the Senate  became dictator for life  enacted reforms to aid the lower class  his enemies had him stabbed to death

11.  Mark Antony and Octavian defeated the leaders of the conspiracy and shared rule of Roman world  Octavian defeated Mark Antony and the senate proclaimed him Augustus - the Exalted One  Augustus had absolute power during his rule from and he chose his successor  27 BCE marked the end of the Roman Republic and beginning of the Roman Empire

12.  Cleopatra VII was at war with her brother/husband Ptolemy XIII.  She allied with Julius Caesar who was in Egypt.  She bore him a son and returned to Rome with him.  After Caesar’s assassination, she hooked up with Mark Antony, who was ruling the eastern part of the Roman world from Alexandria.  Fearful of their power, Octavian declared war against Egypt and defeated Mark Antony.  Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide.