1. “Strategy for Fabricating Nanoscale Catalytic Circuits” Heterogeneous Kinetics and Particle Chemistry Laboratory Washington University St. Louis, Missouri Graduate StudentsUndergraduate Students John ParaiJoe Swisher Eugene RedekopAdam Grimm Xiaolin ZhengYoonsung Han Rebecca Fushimi*Zachary Wegmann Mike Rude*Amy Vukovich Ana Brjetchkova *Graduated Jeffrey Packer Faculty Gregory Yablonsky John T. Gleaves

2. “Strategy for Fabricating Nanoscale Catalytic Circuits” Heterogeneous Kinetics and Particle Chemistry Laboratory Washington University St. Louis, Missouri Why catalysis? Why now? What’s ahead?

3. TAP - International Research Applications 1.Alternative energy sources: hydrogen production, synthesis gas, biomass conversion 2.Environmental research: autoexhaust catalysis, NOx reduction, chemically benign processing 3.Nanoscale research: catalytic nanofactories, atomic tailoring of particle surfaces 4.Advanced industrial processes: high selectivity conversion of alkanes to useful chemicals TAP Reactor System “Research World” (Temporal Analysis of Products) Houston Saint Louis Chicago New Jersey Bangkok Tokyo Tokyo City Beijing Lausanne Lund Madrid Cardiffe Belfast Lyon Delft Eindhoven Ghent Berlin Bochum Leipzig Barcelona HKPCL - Washington University Growing 2 systems/year

4. Catalysis Primer Catalytic Cycle Molecule A Molecule B Molecules Electrons Photons Catalyst Start Regeneration A B A C Reaction Photons, Electrons Atom Molecule Enzyme Simple,complex solid D A Few Benefits of Catalysis Life Ammonia fertilizer Clean water Nontoxic auto-exhaust Nylon Sulphuric acid 93 octane gasoline L-dopa Hefty trash bags Anti-freeze Fuel cells Plastic drain pipe Aspartame Roundup and on and on …… Catalysts give precise spatial and temporal control of chemical reactions, can operate billions of cycles, produce materials, fuels, agricultural and pharmaceutical products, and store and release energy.

5. Some Current Challenges for Catalysis Alkane conversion 1.EthaneCH 3 CHO (acetaldehyde) 2.EthaneAromatics 3.PropaneCH 2 CHCHO (acrolein) 4.Propane CH 2 CHC N (acrylonitrile) 5.PropaneCH 2 CHCH 3 (propene) 6.PropaneCH 2 CHCOOH (acrylic acid) Photocatalytic Reactions 1.H 2 0 + h Hydrogen 2.CO 2 + H 2 O+ h Chemicals C1 chemistry 1.CH 4 + CO 2 2CO + 2H 2 2.CO + H 2 Specific alkanes, alkenes 3.CO + H 2 CH 3 CH 2 OH, or higher alcohol 4.CO + H 2 OCO 2 + H 2 5.2CH 4 + O 2 2CH 3 OH

6. Proven reserves - 1,200,000,000,000 barrels Current rate of consumption - 80,000,000 barrels/day ( DOE, 2005) Depletion of Oil - Current Estimates

7. Worlds Largest Oil Field Ghawar Supergiant field- discovered 1948

8. Discoveries greater than consumption Consumption greater than discoveries Exploratory drilling Depletion of Oil - Forecasting the Future

9. Fuel Imports ($ billions)% Increase Economy200020042000 - 2004 China 21 48 128 India 19 34 79 Japan 77 99 29 US 140 216 54 European Union 219 347 58 Projected consumption - 2010 - 91,000,000 barrels/day 2015 - 100,500,000 barrels/day 2020 - 110,300,000 barrels/day 2025 - 120,900,000 barrels/day (DOE - Energy Information Adminstration 2004) Depletion of Oil - Forecasting Future Demand

10. We are here Population growth rates are predicted to continue to drop. World population predicted to reach 9 billion by 2043. Global Context in which New Technology is Developed Where will the new people live? Where do they obtain the raw materials for life? food, water, fuel, …. By 2050 the world population will reach 9 to 10 billion, and current reserves of both oil and natural gas will be exhausted.

11. (World Bank Statistics - 2004) USWorldLow Income GDP (US$) (billions) 11,711.841,365.81,216.0 GNI per capita (US$/yr) 41,440.06,338.0507.0 Life expectancy (years)77.467.358.8 Population, total (millions) 293.7 6363.22311.7 Population growth (annual %) 0.81.21.8 Surface area (sq. km) (thousands) 9,629.1 133,940.929,264.5 In 2043 World Population - 9,000,000,000 US Population - 400,000,000 (US Census Bureau - 2006) Where will the new people live?

12. Alternatives to Petroleum Coal, natural gas, oil shale, biomass Syngas Process CO + H 2 Solar Catalytic Reactor CH 4 + H 2 O 3H 2 + CO K.I. Zamaraev, Topics in Catalysis, 1996, 3,1. The transition from petroleum will involve a change to a feedstock composed of C1 or C2 molecules and hydrogen.

13. Petroleum based chemistry - large hydrocarbon molecules are cracked into smaller molecules. C1-C2 based chemistry - large molecules are assembled from small ones. Changing Focus of Catalysis and Reaction Engineering Highly selective catalysts to perform multi-step reactions. Industrial reactors that give precise reaction control. 1. Multiple sites to perform different reaction steps. 2. Molecular and nanoscale features. 3. Complex and fragile. 4. Photocatalytic materials

14. Constructing Catalytic Circuits “Active Sites on a Chip” Substrate surface Thin film C. Campbell, Surface Science Reports, 27, 1997, 1 - 111 Substrate surface Metal cluster Heiz, Sherwood, Cox, Kaldor, Yates, J. Phys. Chem. 99, 1995, 8730 - B. C. Gates, Chem. Rev. 95, 1995, 511 - 522 C. Henry, Surface Science Reports 31, 1998, 231 - 325 Iijima and Ichihashi, Phys. Rev. Lett. 56, 1986, 616 - 619 Ag nanocluster array on alumina G. Rupprechter, A. Eppler, A. Avoyan, G. Somorjai, Studies in Surface Science and Catalysis, 130 (2000) 215 - 220 20 nm

15. Atomic Tailoring of Catalysts Particles Precise Submonolayer Change in Surface Composition Physical characterization Precise kinetic characterization RHROH Metal Oxide Particle RHROH Oxygen, Metal atoms

16. Oxidation of a (VO) 2 P 2 O 7 at Atmospheric Pressure O 2 desorption spectrum from 18 O 2 -treated (VO) 2 P 2 O 7 m/e 16 O 2 16 O 18 O 18 O 2 Relative ion signal Single XRD phase Vanadium oxidation state = 4.02 Bulk Vanadium oxidation state = 4.1 VOPO 4 phases may be present (VO) 2 P 2 O 7 T rx > 400, P ox ≈ 1atm, t rx ≈ 1000 s Oxygen uptake behavior Single phase (VO) 2 P 2 O 7 and (800 torr O 2 ) T= 460°C, V(4.13) T= 430°C, V(4.07) T= 450°C, V(4.10) Oxygen uptake (x10 17 O atoms) time (s) 12.7x10 18 O atoms adsorbed - O 2 Vacuum T> 400 °C + O 2 (VO) 2 P 2 O 7

17. C 4 H 10 Pulse T = 380° C P = vacuum Affect of Oxygen Surface Concentration on Catalyst Performance C 4 H 10 C 4 H 2 O 3 (maleic anhydride) O2O2 Flow T = 480° C P = 1 atm. Selectivity and Conversion R-Equil.4-min..32-min.64-min.128-min. Sel. Con. Oxygen treatment time MA production versus VPO oxidation time 4-min. 32-min.64-min. 128-min. Ox Time 0-min. Increased oxygen concentration New phase (VO) 2 P 2 O 7

18. Metal Oxide Particle Atomically tailored surface composition Metal atom deposition Nanoparticles Well-defined bulk lattice Nanoscale Fabrication on Particles

19. + M MMO Metal-enriched nanolayer MMO Metal Atom Deposition on Metal Oxide Particles Catalyst particles Organometallic Compound e.g., Ir 6 (CO) 15 Chemical Vapor Deposition B.C. Gates, Chem. Rev. 95, 1995, 511 - 522. Reaction Products Single Crystal Knudsen Cell Atomic Beam Atomic Beam Deposition

20. Creating Nanoscale Concentration Gradients of Transition Metal Species on Bulk Metal Oxide Catalysts Transition metal source Catalyst particle Atomic beam Laser beam Sample holder (Vacuum - 10 -8 torr) Vibrate bed

21. Atom Deposition Chamber Cu pulses.1s

22. Pulse valve Microreactor Mass spectrometer Catalyst Vacuum (10 -8 torr) Reactant mixture TAP Pulse Response Experiment Key Characteristics Pulse intensity: 10 -10 moles/pulse Input pulse width: 5 x10 -4 s Outlet pressure: 10 -8 torr Observable: Exit flow (F A ).0025 time(s) 5.0 80 2. Small pulse size - High S/N

23. 0.5 time(s) Argon Butane Response after Reaction Relative Flow Experimental and Predicted Responses Argon and Butane Pulsed over VPO 0.5 time(s) Normalized Flow Experimental and Predicted Responses Argon Pulsed over Quartz Particles 440 400 360 320 280 Temp. time (s) 1.0 Relative Intensity 0.0 0.1 Experimental and Predicted Responses Butane Pulsed over Oxygen-treated VPO Arrhenius Plot Butane over Oxygen-treated VPO 1000/T ln k E a = 12 kcal/mol porosity effective diffusivity Transport + Irreversible Adsorption

24. 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 10000 time(s) Pulse Number Zeroth Moment Quantitative Determination of Catalyst Surface Composition and Kinetic Characteristics Conversion (number of surface oxygen atoms and hydrocarbon) Selectivity Product Yield Residence time Apparent rate constants Apparent intermediate gas constants Apparent time delay Quantities calculated from 0 th, 1 st, and 2 nd moments Shekhtman, S. Interrogative Kinetics A New Methodology or Catalyst Characterization. Doctoral Thesis, Washington University, 2003.

25. Atomic Beam Deposition of Pd on Silica Particles Silica particles Pd/PdO deposits Atomic Beam Deposition Pd atoms Sample holder Laser spot 10 -6 torr O 2 TAP Experiments CO CO 2 O 2 uptake

26. - CO 2 production - Total O 2 uptake at room temperature Maximum indicates structure sensitivity Kinetic Evidence of Reactive Self-assembly Amorphous Pd/PdO deposit CO + CO 2 SiO 2 Pd nanoclusters

27. Nanoscale Catalytic Circuit “Catalytic Nanofactory” Example reaction : C 3 H 8 + 2 O 2 C 3 H 4 O 2 + 2H 2 O O 2- n2n2 n4n4 O2O2 ne-ne- C3H8C3H8 H+H+ b+ O 2 activation site C3H6C3H6 C3H4O2C3H4O2 Nanoparticle m O2O2 4 Bulk phase (facile electron transfer) Sub-surface phase (controlled oxygen transfer) H 2 C CCH 2 Insulating phase MaMa MbMb Surface phase

28. Thanks for your attention.

29. Wavelengthtime (s) Vacuum Transformation of Oxygen-treated (VO) 2 P 2 O 7

30. 0.01.02.03.04.05.0 20 40 60 80 100 F exit (t) F exit (t) t (x5) F exit (t) t 2 (x10) time (s) Primary and Time-weighted Transient Response Curves (0 th moment) (1 st moment) (2 nd moment).0025 time(s) 5.0 80 Small Pulse Size - High S/N Insignificant change time 0.0 Experimental Features of TAP Pulse Response Experiment

31. Activity- Structure Relationship for Complex Catalysts

32. Catalyst Preparation Methods from “Methods for Preparation of Catalytic Materials”, C. Contescu, and A. Contescu, Chem. Rev. 1995, 95,47

33. Key Results: Metal Atom Deposition Experiments Demonstrated a new approach for adding metals atoms to the surface of a bulk metal oxide. Shown that small changes in the metal atom surface concentration can influence reaction kinetics. Changes can be detected using transient response experiments. Oxygen Titration Experiments Catalyst selectivity changes as a function of the catalyst oxidation state. Total amount of catalyst oxygen used: 7.7  10 18 atoms 5.5 atoms O/molecule Furan 9.5 atoms O/molecule Butane 8 atoms O/molecule Butene 7.8 atoms O/molecule Butadiene Total amount of catalyst oxygen used: 7.7  10 18 atoms Oxygen consumption = oxygen adsorbed during oxidation treatment. Apparent Kinetic Constants Reactants was greatest for butadiene. Products indicated different reaction paths. was linearly independent of oxidation degree suggesting a more complex supply mechanism.

34. V 2 O 5 + o-H 3 PO 4 (100%) isobutanol (reflux 16h) Catalyst precursor (1) Single XRD phase: (VO) 2 P 2 O 7 Vanadium Ox. State: 4.01 - 4.02 Air/butane (1.5% C4) 1 bar, 673 K, t > 1000h. Dry Air calcine (1) (2) Bulk Catalyst Preparation for Butane Oxidation

35. Phase B Surface phase Catalytic Selective Oxidation-Reduction Cycle R. K. Grasselli, Surface properties and catalysis by nonmetals, 1983, 273 -288 MaMa MbMb O 2- n2n2 n4n4 O2O2 n e - Propane Acrylic acid H+H+ a+ b+ C 3 H 8 + 2 O 2 C 3 H 4 O 2 + 2H 2 O Selective oxidation of propane to acrylic acid Propane activation site Oxygen activation site