1. “Extinction is the rule. Survival is the exception.” –Carl Sagan
Evolution
“Extinction is the rule. Survival is the exception.” –Carl Sagan
“Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution.” -Dobzhansky
“The human’s place in the universe will be set in the scheme of evolution, the product of our biological inheritance.” –Walter Gilbert

2. Evolution Evolution is genetic change in a population over time.
It is a scientific theory based on an abundance of FACTS and EVIDENCE.
Charles Darwin was the first scientist to propose the theory of evolution, in 1859.

3. Darwin’s Observations
He studied finches (birds), tortoises, plants, and animals on the Galapagos islands.

4. Darwin’s Conclusions The Earth is very old and constantly changing
Living things change over time.
Living things are related to plants and animals that used to exist but are now extinct.

5. A very brief history of time
The Earth is 4.6 billion years old
Life appeared (bacteria in the ocean) 3.8 billion years ago – everything alive on the planet today is descended from this, our “last universal common ancestor” or Luca
500 mya: microscopic aquatic plants and animals
300 mya: reptiles, amphibians and insects evolve
65 mya: small rodent like mammals evolve
20 mya: the first modern primates (apes, monkey, lemurs) evolve
100,000 years ago: the first modern humans appear

6. Origins of Life How did life start?
The atmosphere has nitrogen, methane, and ammonia. The oceans had water, lipids, amino acids, and other carbon compounds.
Energy from the sun, volcanoes, and lightening helped amino acids become protein and DNA, which is the basis for life on Earth and formed simple cells.
Other theories? Meteorites

7. Natural Selection
Individuals best suited for a particular environment are more likely to survive and reproduce than those less well adapted.
This is called natural selection, and is also referred to as survival of the fittest.

8. A tale of two giraffes...
Lamarck: The giraffe stretched its neck, which got longer, and its babies had long necks.
Wrong! If your arm was cut off, would you have a baby with one arm?
Darwin: Some giraffes were born with long necks, some with short, the short necks died and the long necks ate food and made long necked babies.
Right! If you are lucky enough to have a good trait, you will reproduce and pass it on.

9. Hundreds to thousands of years of breeding (artificial selection)
If humans choose organisms with specific characteristics and breed them, this is called artificial selection.
For example: dog breeding
Hundreds to thousands of years of breeding (artificial selection)
Ancestral dog

10. Evidence for Evolution
1. Fossils: preserved remains of dead organisms that show how life has changed over time.
Carbon dating measures radioactivity and gives us exact dates of rocks and fossils, which is how we know how old things are.

11. Evidence for Evolution
2. Biogeography is the geographic distribution of species (where animals live).
Plants and animals in different parts of the world are related because they share common ancestors.
All the continents used to be together in a super continent called Pangaea.

12. Evidence for Evolution
3. Comparative Anatomy: living species have similar bones, which shows they shared a common ancestor.
Humans, cats, whales, and bats all have the same number and type of bones in their arms and legs.
Human
Cat
Whale
Bat

13. Evidence for Evolution
4. Comparative Embryology: closely related organisms look similar when they are embryos
This shows that they share a common ancestor, and are all related.
Fish, frogs, snakes, birds, apes, and people all have gills and tails as embryos.

14. Evidence for Evolution
5. Molecular Biology: Scientists compare DNA and amino acid sequences between species to see how closely related we are.
Humans and chimps share 99% of their DNA, which shows they are related and come from a common ancestor.

15. 5 ways evolution happens
1. Genetic Drift is a change in the gene pool due to chance (survival of the fittest)
Thousands to millions of years of natural selection
Ancestral canine

16. How evolution happens
When an event (like a fire, flood or earthquake) drastically reduces the population size only a few organisms survive.
These are the ones that have the best adaptations and are the most fit.
2. This is called
the bottleneck effect.
Original population
Bottlenecking event
Surviving population

17. How evolution happens
3. The founder effect is when some individuals leave a population and start living somewhere new.
The new population starts with less genes, and there will be a lack of genetic diversity.

18. How evolution happens
4. When individuals either enter or leave a population, so do their genes. This is called gene flow and it affects the processes of natural selection and evolution.
5. Mutations are random changes in DNA and can create new proteins and new characteristics. If they are beneficial, they are passed on to offspring.

19. Mass Extinctions
5 major mass extinctions also contributed to Earth’s evolution.
The Permian Extinction occurred 245 mya and was caused by global warming. 95% of all plants and animals went extinct.
65 mya, a large asteroid hit the Earth and caused the Cretaceous Extinction which led to the death of dinosaurs.
Every mass extinction reduced the diversity of life, but those animals with the best adaptations survived and reproduced (like mammals)

20. Speciation
A species is a population of interbreeding organisms that can produce viable, fertile offspring.

21. How new species form
Stabilizing selection: average individuals are favored. Ex: average sized spiders
Directional selection: one trait is more likely to reproduce than another. Ex: long beaked woodpeckers
Disruptive selection: extreme traits are more likely to survive and reproduce. Ex: black moths

22. How new species form
Geographic isolation: physical barriers divide a population (Ex. Grand Canyon)
Reproductive isolation: can no longer mate and produce fertile offspring (ex. CA salamanders)

23. Gradualism vs. Punctuated
How fast does evolution go?
Gradualism says that it happens slowly and steadily over time
Punctuated equilibrium says that it happens quickly in rapid bursts
There are examples of both!
Gradualism: dinosaurs into modern birds
Punctuated: finches in the Galapagos and extreme weather (Grant study)

24. Speciation
2 animals cannot produce viable, fertile offspring if they are from different species.
This is because of either pre-zygotic barriers which prevent the animals from ever meeting and reproducing, or post-zygotic barriers that prevent a zygote from developing into a fertile adult.

25. Pre-Zygotic Barriers
1. Habitat isolation: 2 species live in different habitats and don’t see each other
2. Temporal isolation: 2 species breed at different times of the day or year
3. Behavioral isolation: courtship rituals are species specific, and don’t attract other species
4. Mechanical isolation: the sexual pieces don’t fit together
5. Gametic isolation: even if sex occurs, the egg and sperm can’t meet

26. Post-zygotic barriers
1. Reduced hybrid viability: hybrid babies die before reaching reproductive age
2. Reduced hybrid fertility: hybrid babies are sterile and can’t reproduce
3. Hybrid breakdown: first generation babies can breed, but their children are infertile (F2)

27. Speciation There are a few exceptions, called hybrids:
Lion + tiger = liger (the grandchildren can’t reproduce)
Horse + donkey = mule (all sterile)
Polar bear + grizzly bear = pizzly (too soon to tell if they are fertile or not)

28. Hardy-Weinberg
The Hardy-Weinberg equation shows that in a changing environment, evolution always happens.
If all 5 of these conditions are met, evolution will not happen in nature:
1. Large population
2. Random Mating
3. No gene flow
4. No mutations
5. All individual are equally “fit”

29. Hardy-Weinberg The Hardy-Weinberg equation is p2 + 2pq + q2 =1
The variables stand for:
p = frequency of the dominant allele (A)
q = frequency of the recessive allele (a)
2pq = chances of being heterozygous (Aa)
p2 = chances of being AA
q2 = chances of being aa

30. The results of evolution
First, there were only bacteria cells.
These evolved into eukaryotic multi celled simple animals.
The first animals lived in the ocean and evolved into fish.
Lungfish were able to survive on land and evolved into amphibians and reptiles.
Reptiles evolved into birds and small mammals.
Small rodent like mammals evolved into lemurs, which then evolved into apes, monkeys, and humans.
Apes and monkeys are our close cousins, and we share a common ancestor.