1. Third Consultative Meeting of the MIREM Project
Nikkeijin in Japan: Institutional Framework and Issues of Reintegration David Chiavacci
Third Consultative Meeting of the MIREM Project
Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies, European University Institute
Florence, 3-4 November 2008

2. Introduction
From late 1980s onwards, significant return migration of former Japanese emigrants and their descendants (Nikkeijin, 日系人) from South America to Japan
Today, about 400,000 Nikkeijin residing in Japan
Return migration not accompanied by national integration policy
Integration policy for Nikkeijin on local level, but huge problems concerning economic and social integration
Recently, new and substantials initiatives concerning a national integration policy

3. Overview Background of Return Migration to Japan
Nikkeijin in Japan: Problems regarding Reintegration
New National Policy Initiatives
Concluding Remarks

4. The Political Making of Return Migration to Japan
Late 1980s, increasingly irregular foreign workers in Japan, debate about new immigration policy
1990 revision of Japanese immigration law (Immigration Control and Refugee Recognition Act, 出入国管理および難民認定法)
Several minor changes
Major point in the reform: new working visa for Japanese emigrants and their descendants up to the third generation
Return migration of Nikkeijin of often seen as part of ethnic preference in Japanese immigration policy
However, very complex policy making process
Neither intended as an active immigration policy, nor regarded as a labor market policy by Japanese government

5. The Economic Context of Return Migration to Japan
, “bubble economy” in Japan (high growth and labor shortage)
Late 1980s, hyperinflation and economic crisis in many South American economies
Return migration started already in late 1980s
Private migration industry established at the time of the immigration reform in 1990
Large number of return migrants surprised Japanese officials
Up to late 1990s primarily circular migration (出稼ぎ) by Nikkeijin, especially between Brazil and Japan

6. Number of registered Brazilian and Peruvian residents in Japan, 1987-2007
Source: Ministry of Justice.

7. Overview Background of Return Migration to Japan
Nikkeijin in Japan: Problems regarding Reintegration
New National Policy Initiatives
Concluding Remarks

8. Juristic and Political Context of Nikkeijin Reintegration
Large majority of Nikkeijin are not Japanese citizenship and have only very limited Japanese language abilities, but denizen status in Japan
However, Japanese industry structurally depending on Nikkeijin as fundamental part of labor force
Nikkeijin as contract and dispatched workers indispensable for achieving high flexibility in manufacturing (especially among secondary and tertiary subcontractors in automobile and electronics parts sectors)
Integration policy
No comprehensive national integration policy for return migrants
Regional concentration of Nikkeijin in smaller cities around major industrial centers
Active integration policy and support through NGOs on regional and local level

9. Labor Market and Social Security
Nearly 80% of Nikkeijin indirectly employed on demand
Contract with private temporary staff agencies
Indirectly and temporarily hired as contract or dispatched workers
Nikkeijin in South America regarded as model minority with high educational attainments
However, very limited Japanese language abilities
Level of human capital of Nikkeijin only very limited influence on their job opportunities and income
Normally not integrated into social security systems
About 10% of Nikkeijin enrolled in employees‘ health insurance and pension insurance system
About 20-30% of Nikkeijin enrolled in Japanese national pension system
Accident or sickness? Retirement?

10. Education System
According to Japanese law, compulsory education for all children aged 6 to 15 in Japan, but foreign children exempted
Many children of Nikkeijin not integrated into (Japanese) education system
E.g. Brazilian children: about 9,000 in Brazilian schools, 10,000 in Japanese schools, about 15,000 not enrolled in any school
Problems in adaption to Japanese school system (language, educational level, behavior etc.)
Some initiatives for foreign school children by Ministry of Education
Assistance teacher and extra language classes for foreign children
Still, 99% of Japanese school children graduate from high school, but up to 75% of Nikkeijin school children do not attend high school

11. Social and Political Participation
Residence of Nikkeijin concentrated in social housing and tenement blocks in smaller industrial cities
Some frictions (noise, garbage etc.), but overall quite smooth coexistence side by side with Japanese population
Tendencies for local Nikkeijin enclaves
Active integration policy on local level and support through NGOs
Support for problems in everyday life through translation services, Japanese language classes
Stressing multicultural community (Japanese festival and Brazilian carneval)
In some municipalities council by foreign residence

12. Overview Background of Return Migration to Japan
Nikkeijin in Japan: Problems regarding Reintegration
New National Policy Initiatives
Concluding Remarks

13. Demands and New Initiatives for National Integration Policy
Possibility of Nikkeijin becoming an uncoupled social underclass
Demand for stronger support and national integration policy by local administrations, NGOs etc.
Moreover, increasingly demand for active immigration policy in view of demographic development and (potential) labor shortage by economic interest groups
National integration policy generally regarded as precondition for more active immigration and foreign workers policy
New initiatives on national level
Compulsory education for foreign children
New legislation regarding foreign residents (scheduled for 2009)
Integration/Immigration Agency?

14. Overview Background of Return Migration to Japan
Nikkeijin in Japan: Problems regarding Reintegration
New National Policy Initiatives
Concluding Remarks

15. Nikkeijin in Japan: Between Integration and Exclusion
Nikkeijin important part of renewed success story of Japanese industries and industrial productions
No full integration of Nikkeijin
Precarious position in labor market and not included in social welfare state
Social upward mobility seems very difficult
Integration efforts not helped by cultural differences and circular migration movements
Better integration on level of local society, but national integration policy crucial
Comprehensive national integration policy currently under construction
Brazilian Nikkeijin bridge to rising Brazil? (BRIC)