1. 17
Foreign Policy

2. Foreign Policy
Programs and policies that determine America’s relations with other nations and foreign entities
The nation’s chief foreign-policy actors are
The president
The Congress
The bureaucracy
Foreign policy is often thought of as non-partisan

3. Foreign Policy Goals: Promoting Security
Promoting security is the most important goal of American foreign policy
Ensuring that food supplies, infrastructure, energy supplies, and the physical security of the population are protected from foreign threats

4. State and Non-State Actors
Nation-states – Political entities consisting of a people with some common cultural experience (nation) who also share a common political authority (state), recognized by other sovereignties
Non-state actors – A group other than a nation-state that attempts to play a role in the international system
Terrorist groups are non-state actors

5. Isolationism
The desire to avoid involvement in the affairs of other nations
The Monroe Doctrine established the Western Hemisphere as a region under the sphere of influence of the United States – an early departure from isolationism
Discussion:
It is also possible to think of the Monroe Doctrine as an early departure from American expressions of isolationism. Combined with notions of “Manifest Destiny,” it is plausible that American hegemonic claims over the Western Hemisphere suggest not isolationism, but rather a strong willingness to engage in international affairs. Later in the nineteenth century, the Mexican–American War, the acquisition of Alaska and Hawaii, and the Spanish–American war further illustrate an American willingness to engage in international affairs during the purportedly isolationist nineteenth century.

6. Deterrence and Appeasement
Deterrence – The development of a nation’s military capacity in order to discourage attack
Appeasement – The idea of giving in to the demands of a hostile power in order to maintain short-term stability

7. Preemption
Foreign policy principle that permits a first strike attack in order to prevent an enemy attack
The Bush Doctrine, formulated after 9/11, argued that the United States had the right to preemptively attack other nations if it was believed they posed an imminent threat
Discussion:
The idea of preemption is similar to the previous discussion of “preventative war.”

8. The Cold War
Ideological struggle between the United States and the Soviet Union from 1940s to 1991
Unlike “hot wars,” the United States and the Soviet Union never directly engaged each other in military conflict
Berlin
Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)
Vietnam
Latin America
Discussion:
To a large extent, the description of this conflict as a “Cold War” is something of a misnomer. Few parts of the globe were untouched by the ideological battle between capitalism and communism. In particular, the Korean War, Vietnam War, and numerous civil wars in Latin America and Africa were in large part conflicts fought over these ideologies.
The closest the United States and the Soviet Union ever came to direct conflict was probably the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis. When the United States learned that Soviet missiles were directed at the United States from the communist island of Cuba, only 90 miles away the Kennedy administration instituted a naval blockade of Cuba. A more serious crisis was averted when the Soviet Union agreed to remove the missiles in exchange for an American assurance not to invade Cuba (The United States had supported such an invasion in 1961, known as the “Bay of Pigs.”).

9. The End of the Cold War
The Truman Doctrine announced that the major goal of American foreign policy would be to contain the spread of communism
The 1991 collapse of the Soviet Union marked the end of the Cold War and a victory for the policy of containment

10. Foreign Policy Goals: Economic Prosperity
A second foreign policy goal, after security, is promoting economic prosperity
Trade Policy – Most-Favored-Nation status / normal trade relations offers reduced tariffs
North American Free Trade Agreement as an example – 1994 agreement between the United States, Mexico, and Canada

11. International Trade Organizations
World Trade Organization (WTO) – An international group promoting free trade that grew out of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) – An international trade organization, in existence from 1947 to 1995, that set many of the rules governing international trade
Discussion:
Critics of international trade organizations such as the WTO and GATT argue that these organizations are created to primarily serve the interests of developed nations at the expense of developing nations.

12. Foreign Policy Goals: Humanitarian Concerns
A third goal of foreign policy is humanitarian concerns
Environmental, human rights, and peace-keeping efforts aimed at improving the lives of individuals in other nations
Humanitarian concerns frequently take a backseat to American security and economic interests

13. Clicker Question
Which of the following goals do you believe best describes overall American foreign policy objectives?
Humanitarian concerns
Economic concerns
Security concerns
Other
Answer: C – All three are important but security is most important.

14. US International Trade in Goods and Services
Discussion:
In international trade, most nations seek to accumulate a trade surplus. For decades, however, the United States has maintained large trade deficits with many of its most important trading partners. Figure 17.1 tracks the American trade deficits between 2006 and 2011.

15. Who Makes American Foreign Policy? The President
The President of the United States is head of state and commander in chief
This allows the president to exercise substantial control over American diplomatic and military institutions
Presidential authority over foreign policy has grown substantially in the post–World War II era
Discussion:
Many refer to the post–World War II presidency as the “imperial presidency,” a time when presidents have asserted greater and greater authority over the commitment of American military personnel. This expansion has come about despite the fact that the Constitution explicitly gives Congress the power to declare war and limits the president to the position of commander in chief during wartime.

16. Who Makes American Foreign Policy? The Bureaucracy
Numerous bureaucratic agencies exist to implement American foreign policy
State Department
Department of Defense
Central Intelligence Agency
Joint Chiefs of Staff
These agencies do not always agree or have the same interests
Discussion:
Although all bureaucracies retain a significant amount of political independence and policy discretion, American presidents exert significant authority and direction over bureaucratic agencies by virtue of the power to appoint agency staff.

17. Principal Foreign Policy Provisions of the Constitution
Discussion:
As with much of the rest of American politics, the framers of the Constitution expected the president and the Congress to share power in the conduct of foreign policy. For example, the president’s power to negotiate treaties can be checked by the U.S. Senate’s power to ratify treaties; the president nominates heads of foreign-policy bureaucracies, but the U.S. Senate must confirm them; the Congress is to declare war and the President is to be the primary wartime commander. These power-sharing arrangements are intended to prevent one branch of government from becoming too powerful, but sometimes lead to a lack of effective policy coordination and consistency.

18. Who Makes American Foreign Policy? The Congress
Constitutional power to declare war
Senate (only) ratifies treaties and confirms presidential appointments
Power of the purse
Power to regulate commerce with foreign nations
Investigation and oversight
Discussion:
The U.S. Senate has particular importance for the conduct of foreign policy. Confirmation of presidential appointments and the ratification of treaties takes place only in the U.S. Senate. Other powers listed require approval of both houses of Congress

19. Who Makes American Foreign Policy? Interest Groups
Economic interest groups – Single-issue groups (like the tobacco industry) are most effective
Ethnic lobbying – Israel Lobby and Irish Lobby as examples
Human rights
Amnesty International
Christian Coalition
Discussion:
Probably the best example of single-issue economic groups’ influence over foreign policy would be weapons manufacturers and other military contractors that profit from war. This example hearkens back to President Eisenhower’s warning in his farewell address against the rise of a “military industrial complex.”

20. Clicker Question
Which one of the following branches of the US government is explicitly given the power to declare war by the Constitution?
The President
The Congress
The Department of Defense
The Department of State
Answer: B

21. Crisis and Foreign Policy
Times of crisis tend to concentrate foreign-policy power in the hands of the president
In general, presidents wield far more power over foreign policy than domestic policy
Discussion:
As a single individual charged with commanding American military forces, the President is in a unique position to respond to foreign-policy crises. With control over the foreign-policy bureaucracy, Presidents wield far greater power in the arena of foreign policy than of domestic policy, where a host of other political forces serve to check and balance presidential designs. See the presidencies of Barack Obama, George W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and George Herbert Walker Bush for illustrations of this point.

22. The Instruments of Modern American Foreign Policy
Diplomacy is a policy tool that attempts to resolve international conflicts through direct discussion and negotiation
The Department of State is the national government’s chief diplomatic arm
The Foreign Service Act (1946) created a fully professional diplomatic corps

23. The United Nations
Founded in 1945, the UN is a multilateral body created to solve international disputes before they lead to armed conflict
The five permanent members of the UN Security Council (United States, Russia, France, China, and the UK) exercise the greatest degree of influence
Discussion:
It is important to remember that following World War I, the United States rejected efforts to form a League of Nations, a theoretical precursor to the United Nations. Following World War I, sentiment grew among the American population favoring traditions of isolationism. The experience of World War II forced the United States out of its isolationist posture and into a prominent leadership role on the world stage.

24. Clicker Question
Which of the following nations is NOT a member of the UN Security Council?
India
United States
France
China
Answer: A

25. The International Monetary Structure
The World Bank is a primary funder for long-term capital projects in developing nations
The International Monetary Fund is a primary source of stabilization funds during crises
Discussion:
The World Bank and the international monetary fund were created in the aftermath of World War II as the Western powers realized the Soviet Union and its ideology of communism would constitute an existential threat. During the Cold War, these organizations served the interests of Western capitalism by promoting development in emerging economies in Latin American, Africa, and other parts of the developing world.
Criticism of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund centers around the domination by Western powers of these institutions. For example, the president of the World Bank is appointed by the United States president, while the head of the International Monetary Fund is traditionally a European appointee. Regarding specific policies, critics in developing nations usually cite requirements by international lenders that developing nations open up domestic markets to foreign competition in exchange for needed development funds. In many cases, developing countries lose domestic markets to far more efficient foreign competition. Proponents of these international organizations cite long-term investments in infrastructure and human development as reasons for their continued existence.

26. Economic Aid and Sanctions
The vast majority of American economic aid is used to further American security or economic interests
Israel and Egypt are the largest recipients of aid as a lasting effect of the Camp David Peace Treaty
Sanctions are the economic “stick” of foreign policy

27. Collective Security
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is a multilateral military organization comprised of the United States, Canada, and most of Western Europe
Though initially created to counter the Soviet Union, since the 1990s NATO has played a central role in a number of regional conflicts around the world
Discussion:
During the 1990s, NATO was instrumental in halting a civil war in the former Yugoslavia. Following the 9/11 attacks, the United States’ invasion of Afghanistan was done as part of a NATO action, with the participation of a number of other NATO countries. During the Fall of 2011, NATO bombing helped bring an end to the Libyan regime of Moammar Qaddafi.

28. Military Force
Because of its tremendous cost, military force is seen as a tool of last resort
Because of the amount of variables involved, military action is seen as inherently risky
Discussion:
You may want to recommend to your students the documentary “Fog of War” (2003) which examines the life of former Defense Secretary Robert McNamara. The documentary offers 11 lessons from McNamara’s experience in foreign policy. In particular, McNamara’s insights into mistakes made during the Vietnam War highlight the many unpredictable consequences of military action– the fog of war.

29. Shares of World Military Expenditures – 2010

30. Arbitration
An alternative form of dispute resolution relying upon an independent third body to adjudicate between competing claims
The International Court of Justice plays an important role here
Discussion:
The World Trade Organization (WTO), discussed earlier, offers a classic example of arbitration in the area of trade disputes between nations. The body examines and adjudicates claims of unfair trade practices.

31. Thinking Critically About Foreign Policy
Realism is a school of foreign policy thought that places national security and economic interests above all other concerns
Idealism is a school of foreign policy thought that emphasizes the promotion of a nation’s values and ideals
Discussion:
The tension between these two schools of thought reverberates throughout American foreign policy history. Recently, the tension between them surfaced during the “Arab Spring” conflicts in the Middle East in 2011 and Beginning in Tunisia and spreading to Egypt, Libya, Syria, and surrounding Middle East nations, the movement emphasized greater personal freedom and democratic control in these nations. In American foreign-policy circles, tension arose between advocates of these long-standing American ideals and concerns that democracy could lead to instability and the rise to power of Islamic fundamentalism.

32. As part of the August 2011 agreement to raise the debt ceiling (the maximum amount the U.S. government is permitted to borrow), House Republicans insisted on a mechanism for proposing future spending cuts and making them stick.
Congress created a Joint Select Committee on Deficit Reduction (nicknamed the “supercommittee”) made up of 12 members, 6 from the House and 6 from the Senate, with an equal number of Democrats and Republicans. The committee was tasked with making recommendations to reduce the national debt by $1.5 trillion between fiscal 2012 and 2021, through spending cuts, tax increases, or some combination. The supercommittee was required to send its recommendations to Congress for up-or-down votes. If Congress did not pass the recommendations, discretionary spending would automatically be cut across the board in order to reach the deficit reduction goals. Entitlement programs like Social Security and Medicare are not included in these automatic cuts. The possibility of automatic cuts to discretionary spending alarmed the defense community in particular. Why? 32

33. Defense spending makes up a large part—nearly one-half—of discretionary spending. Consequently, any across-the- board cuts, which would apply equally to all discretionary programs, would fall especially hard on the defense budget, jeopardizing some of the military’s most important programs and forcing significant reductions in personnel and readiness funding. In 2012, procurement and research and development accounted for about one-third of the budget. Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta called the possible automatic cut a “doomsday provision” that could dramatically weaken the U.S. defense posture.
SOURCE: Congressional Budget Office, “Discretionary Defense Spending.” Presentation to the National Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform, June 9, 2010. 33

34. *Includes Department of Defense spending and the Department of Energy's nuclear weapons program. Proponents of cutting defense spending point to the fact that military spending has increased dramatically since While few Americans would be in favor of reducing America’s military preparedness, wars in Afghanistan and Iraq have cost the Department of Defense—and ultimately taxpayers—hundreds of billions of dollars in the past decade. SOURCE: Center for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation, (accessed 9/29/11). 34