1. Edward Henry Dowdye, Jr., Ph.D., Physics Founder Pure Classical Physics Research Member American Physics Society NPA

8. On Galilean Transformations of Velocities

10. On Rectilinear Motion of the Photons

11. Galilean Transformations of Velocities All transformations are strictly carried out under Galilean Transformations of Velocities All calculations are performed strictly in Euclidean Space Geometry Euclidean Space Geometry No AD HOC assumptions required No requirements of a medium (no ether) No curvilinear coordinates required No distortions of the standard coordinate system of space and time required Rectilinear Paths All Photons and Gravitons move strictly along Rectilinear Paths

12. All Laws of Nature are totally invariant under Galilean Transformations in Euclidean Space from Reference Frame - to - Reference Frame All transformations are describable in a single set of Principal Axioms The exact mathematical equivalence of both Special and General Relativity is accomplished from the above premises alone

26. Hypothetical Observer versus Real World Observer

29. Equivalent Waves and the Ordinary Observer

31. Principal Axioms Principal Axioms applied to applied to Electromagnetism Electromagnetism

38. Principal Axioms Principal Axioms applied to applied to Gravitation Gravitation

39. On Gravitation On Gravitation The very same principal axioms of the logical addition of velocities also apply to the exchange of gravitons between particles of mass! The motion of a particle through the field set up by a different particle under the gravitational influence of the first, has a direct representation under the electrodynamics of Galilean Transformations of Velocities, abiding strictly by the rules of rectilinear motion in Euclidean Space!!!

44. Significant Finding Solar Gravitational Gradient interacts directly with Solar Plasma Limb which interacts directly with Electromagnetic Waves

45. The Observational Evidence The gravitational gradient field of the sun acts directly on the plasma limb of the sun. The plasma limb of the sun acts directly on the electromagnetic waves propagating along a minimum-energy or a least-time path within the plasma limb as would be defined by the gravitational gradient field of the sun. The gravitational gradient field of the sun acts only indirectly on the electromagnetic waves that are being deflected by the plasma limb.

46. All electromagnetic waves propagating in the plasma-free vacuum space appear to be unaffected by the gravitational gradient field of the sun and of the stars The Observational Evidence All electromagnetic waves in the plasma limb propagate along a minimum-energy path

49. The Gravitational Potential of the SUN and of the EARTH at a given point of reference where the point of reference is near Earth’s Surface V SUN = 14.14 V E where the point of reference is anywhere in space

50. The Gravitational Potential Gradient of SUN compared to EARTH along Earth’s Orbit

51. The Observations as function of Impact Parameter in empty vacuum space

52. General Relativity predicts as function of Impact Parameter in empty vacuum space

53. General Relativity integrated effect Gauss Law

57. MINIMUM ENERGY PATH or MINIMUM TIME PATH PRINCIPAL OF RECIPROCITY

59. Gravitational Light Bending as function of Impact Parameter in Plasma Free Vacuum Space

60. General Relativity as function of Impact Parameter in empty vacuum space

61. The Observations as function of Impact Parameter in empty vacuum space

62. A light bending effect due to the sun’s gravitational field, should, as theoretically predicted by General Relativity, take place at the Gaussian sphere, 2R, yielding 1/2 of 1.75 arcsec, at the Gaussian sphere, 3R, yielding 1/3 of 1.75 arcsec. This should be noticeable for nR using modern technical means. As Function of the Impact Parameter

63. The focal length F and the radius R of the sun are expressed in the same units. The light rays from a distant star of 1 solar mass M and 1 solar radius R will come to a focus at a distance of roughly 550 astronomical units, assuming a convergence angle of 1.75 arcsec. It has been a long desire of astrophysicists, SETI study groups and the International Academy of Astronautics, to send instruments to large astronomical distances to exploit the light bending focal length of the sun’s rim. 550 AU 1.75 arcsec The Focal Length of the Solar Plasma Rim

64. Distance h(R SUN ) above Rim r = R SUN + h Acceleration g SUN 1/r 2 Effect Acceleration m/s 2 1/r 2 Effect Observed Lensing Predicted by General Relativity 1/R Effect R = R SUN + h h = 1.0, r = 2.0 R SUN 0.25 g SUN 68.5 m/s 2 none0.88 arcsec h = 0.5, r = 1.5 R SUN 0.44 g SUN 121.8 m/s 2 none1.17 arcsec h = 0.2, r = 1.2 R SUN 0.69 g SUN 190.3 m/s 2 none1.45 arcsec h = 0.1, r = 1.1 R SUN 0.83 g SUN 226.4 m/s 2 negligible or none1.59 arcsec h = 0, r = 1.0 R SUN 1.00 g SUN 274.0 m/s 2 1.75 arcsec Distance / R sun 0.10 0.05 0 no lensing observed negligible or no lensing observed

65. The Shapiro Delay A Frequency Dependent Transit-Time Effect noticeable transit time delay as a function of the impact parameter of the microwave beam relative to the sun

67. no bending of optical, IR or UV waves due to the electron density profile THE OBSERVATIONAL EVIDENCE

68. SOLAR PLASMA INDEX OF REFRACTION r( R sun ) N e ( cm^-3) N e / N c n=1-½N e /N c 1 / n 2.2GHz8.8GHz 2.2GHz8.8GHzOptical 200 5.4606E+00 9.0985E-11 5.6866E-12 1.0000000000 150 1.0124E+01 1.6869E-10 1.0543E-11 1.00000000001.00000000011.0000000000 100 2.4386E+01 4.0632E-10 2.5395E-11 1.00000000001.00000000021.0000000000 50 1.1282E+02 1.8798E-09 1.1749E-10 0.99999999991.00000000091.00000000011.0000000000 40 1.8640E+02 3.1059E-09 1.9412E-10 0.99999999991.00000000161.00000000011.0000000000 30 3.5868E+02 5.9763E-09 3.7352E-10 0.99999999981.00000000301.00000000021.0000000000 20 9.1538E+02 1.5252E-08 9.5327E-10 0.99999999951.00000000761.00000000051.0000000000 15 1.7986E+03 2.9968E-08 1.8730E-09 0.99999999911.00000001501.00000000091.0000000000 12 3.0559E+03 5.0919E-08 3.1824E-09 0.99999999841.00000002551.00000000161.0000000000 11 3.7631E+03 6.2702E-08 3.9189E-09 0.99999999801.00000003141.00000000201.0000000000 3 9.2431E+04 1.5401E-06 9.6257E-08 0.99999995191.00000077011.00000004811.0000000000

69. THE OBSERVATIONAL EVIDENCE No Gravitational Light Bending Occurs At Astronomically Large Impact Parameters in empty vacuum space

70. THE QUESTION IS Where are the Einstein Rings?

71. No Gravitational Light Bending on the Rays of Star Light at Astronomically Large Impact Parameters in empty vacuum space

72. Distance h(R SUN ) above Rim r = R SUN + h Acceleration g SUN 1/r 2 Effect Acceleration m/s 2 1/r 2 Effect Observed Lensing Predicted by General Relativity 1/R Effect R = R SUN + h h = 1.0, r = 2.0 R SUN 0.25 g SUN 68.5 m/s 2 none0.88 arcsec h = 0.5, r = 1.5 R SUN 0.44 g SUN 121.8 m/s 2 none1.17 arcsec h = 0.2, r = 1.2 R SUN 0.69 g SUN 190.3 m/s 2 none1.45 arcsec h = 0.1, r = 1.1 R SUN 0.83 g SUN 226.4 m/s 2 negligible or none1.59 arcsec h = 0, r = 1.0 R SUN 1.00 g SUN 274.0 m/s 2 1.75 arcsec Distance / R sun 0.10 0.05 0 no lensing observed negligible or no lensing observed

73. From the Book Discourses & Mathematical Illustration pertaining to the Extinction Shift Principle Solved Problems on GRAVITATION Solar Light Bending (in Plasma Atmosphere of Sun) Here, it is found that, due to the gravitational gradient of the plasma of the sun, the very same light bending equation of is derived using pure classical assumptions only. Exactly 1.75 arcsec of light bending in the plasma atmosphere of the sun is predicted by this Extinction Shift Principle because of pure classical reasons only. The significant finding here is that for nearly a century of intense observations, an indirect interaction between the gravitational field of the sun and the rays of light of the stars has been observed, not a direct interaction as predicted by General Relativity. The mere fact that this effect is observed for a century only in the plasma atmosphere of the sun is in itself a direct violation and thus an astrophysical discount and disproof of the light bending rule of General Relativity. Recall that Relativity claims gravitational light bending effect should occur in the vacuum space just slightly above the solar rim of the plasma as well as in the solar plasma atmosphere.

75. Redshift

78. Observed and Recorded by Modern Astrophysics since 1992

79. If the light bending rule of General Relativity were actually correct then occasional distortions in the images of the stellar objects moving about Sagittarius A* will most likely have been observed and recorded; given modern Astrophysical means. As Predicted by General Relativity: Not Currently Observed

80. Direct Gravitation-Electromagnetism Interaction THE PREDICTION OF GENERAL RELATIVITY

81. No Direct Gravitation-Electromagnetism Interaction THE OBSERVATIONAL EVIDENCE No Gravitational Light Bending Occurs in Empty Vacuum Space

82. THE OBSERVATIONAL EVIDENCE at the Galactic Center

84. From symmetry we have Solving for the radius of the impact parameter of the light ray and thus the radius of the Einstein Ring expressed in radians we have and finally Radius of the Einstein Ring

85. Note that the angle of deflection for the approach segment, one half of the total gravitational effect, is exactly equal to the radius of the solved Einstein ring expressed in radians and is given as This is a rarely covered fundamental on in modern academic textbooks. The accumulative effect must sum the effects on the light ray upon approach and receding the gravitating mass. From above, the total accumulative effect is thus

92. E. H. Dowdye, “Time resolved images from the center of the Galaxy appear to counter General Relativity”, Astronomische Nachrichten, Vol. 328, 2, pp. 186-191 (2007) Published online at: http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/search/allsearch

94. SUMMARY The gravitational gradient field of the sun acts directly on the plasma limb of the sun. The plasma limb of the sun acts directly on the electromagnetic waves propagating along a minimum-energy or a least-time path within the plasma limb. The gravitational gradient field of the sun acts indirectly, not directly, on the electromagnetic waves propagating in the plasma limb of the sun.

95. SUMMARY All electromagnetic waves in the plasma limb propagate along a minimum-energy path All electromagnetic waves propagating in the plasma-free vacuum space appear to be unaffected by the gravitational gradient field of the sun and of the stars

96. SUMMARY The severe dependency of the observed gravitational deflection of microwaves on the IMPACT PARAMETER is solid evidence light bending rule of General Relativity is violated.

97. THERE IS STILL THE BURNING QUESTION Where are the Einstein Rings? SUMMARY

98. Where is Einstein at Sagittarius A*?

99. "Wenn die Lichtgeschwindigkeit auch nur ein bißchen von der Geschwindigkeit der Lichtquelle abhängig ist, dann ist meine ganze Relativitätstheorie und Gravitationstheorie falsch.“ "If the velocity of light is only a tiny bit dependent on the velocity of the light source, then my whole theory of Relativity and Gravitation is false.“ {Quotation of A. Einstein from a letter to Erwin Finley-Freundlich: August 1913}.

100. Nobel Prize Physicist Dr. Albert Einstein receives a Lincoln University honorary degree for his accomplishments during his visit in 1946. http://www.lincoln.edu/sesquicentennial/legacy.html

101. Books available on Create Space, in eBook for Kimble and Nook