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CELLS
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Cells basic structural & functional units of all living organisms
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Cell Theory cell is basic structural & functional unit of all living organisms activity of organisms depends on individual & collective activities of cells biochemical activities dictated by sub-cellular structures of cells continuity of life has cellular basis cells are produced by divisions of preexisting cells
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Major Classes Prokaryotic no nucleus DNA in nucleoid region bacteria
Eukaryotic true nucleus contains DNA all other cells plant & animal
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Prokaryotes surrounded by plasma membrane outside membrane-cell wall
rigid protects cells helps maintain shape capsule surrounds cell wall for further protection may contain surface projections-pili help adhere to surfaces some have very long projections-flagella help move
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Eukaryotic Cells plant or animal
separated from external environment by phospholipid or plasma membrane cytoplasm stuff between nucleus & plasma membrane consists of 2 parts cytosol liquid part organelles intracellular structures
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Plant & Animal Cells same organelles
plant cells have several organellesnot found in animal cells cell walls extra protection chloroplasts covert light energy into chemical energy central vacuoles store water & chemicals
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Plasma Membrane creates specific compartments- functional units-organelles regulates exchanges with environment controls what goes in & out selectively permeability some substances can cross easily; others have difficult time crossing or cannot cross crucial to metabolic functioning allows things to happen in one area without influencing another area
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Cell Membrane plasma membrane lipid bilayer thin phospholipids
proteins carbohydrates
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Plasma Membrane Phospholipids-composed of 2 fatty acids & PO4 group
produces molecule with globular, polar head water loving-hydrophillic and hydrocarbon tail straight, non-polar hydrophobic- water hating head is attracted to water tail is repealed causes phospholipids to form a two-layer sheet- phospholipid bilayer with hydrophobic tails facing each other & hydrophilic polar heads pointing outward interior of bilayer is hydrophobic
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Membrane Structure & Function
structure accounts for membrane’s selective permeability nonpolar, hydrophobic molecules are soluble in lipids & pass through membrane polar molecules & ones not soluble in lipids have more difficult time passing
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Proteins in Plasma Membrane
plasma membrane described as fluid mosaic not static phospholipids move in membrane punctuated along its length with proteins proteins determine which hydrophilic molecules may pass through Integral proteins form part of membrane structure bound to it Transmembrane proteins traverse bilayer some form hydrophilic channels through which ions & molecules can enter or leave Peripheral proteins loosely associated with membrane bind to inner or outer membrane surface cell recognition recognize other cells as abnormal or normal called receptors
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Nucleus & Nucleolus Nucleus most obvious organelle in eukaryotic cells
all eukaryote cells have nucleus typically spherical found in center surrounded by nuclear envelope double membrane with large number of pores allows for passage of materials between nucleus & cytoplasm contains genetic information-DNA contains nucleolus makes subunits that comprise ribosomes
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Ribosomes made by nucleolus
travel from nucleus to cytoplasm via nuclear pores synthesize proteins most attached to surface of endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-rough ER some can be found floating free in cytoplasm
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Endoplasmic Reticulum
interconnected flattened tubular tunnels continuous with outer membrane of nucleus all eukaryotic cells contain ER responsible for communication in cell part of endomembrane system all membranous organelles belong to system Rough attached ribosomes makes appear spotty takes in proteins made on ribosomes so cannot escape into cytoplasm Smooth no attached ribosomes smooth not involved in protein synthesis steroid production contains enzymes required to detoxify wide variety of organic molecules storage site for calcium
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Golgi Bodies stacks of flattened, membranous sacs associated with ER
store & modify products made by ER one side receives materials once material is received it is modified once modified it is transported to sending side finished secretory products are packaged into transport vesicles move to plasma membrane for export
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Lysosomes bags of digestive enzymes surrounded by membranes
keeps enzymes out of cytoplasm so cell does not digest itself breaks down macromolecules & other structures digestive function fuse with food vacuoles & digest food destroy bacteria recycle damaged organelles
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Vacuoles membranous sacs larger than vesicles
part of endomembrane system variety of functions fresh water organisms possess contractile vacuoles plant cells have central vacuoles contribute to plant growth by absorbing water & causing cells to expand other plant vacuoles store organic nutrients contain pigments that attract insects have poisons to protect them from plant eaters
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Mitochondria power stations large, usually sausage shaped
sites of cellular respiration burn food molecules, in presence of O2, to release energy aerobic respiration harvest energy from sugar & convert it to ATP chemical currency all cells found in almost all cells of body number depends on cell’s energy requirements
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Chloroplasts plant cells
site of photosynthesis light energy from sun converted into chemical energy of sugar & organic molecules contains green pigment, chlorophyll
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Cilia & Flagella Cilia shorter & more numerous than flagella
move fluids across surfaces by producing sweeping movements Flagella longer usually one per cell propel cells via undulating whip like movement common in structure & movement core of microtubules wrapped in plasma membrane Cilia and flagella
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Cytoskeleton internal framework made of protein filaments
like bones & muscles of cells 3 types of fibers Microfilaments slender protein strands of actin helps cells change shape or contract amoeboid movement Intermediate fibers fibrous proteins give them ropelike structure maintain cell shape & anchor organelles Microtubules straight, hollow tubes made of globular proteins-tubulins reinforce cell shape also responsible for movement of cilia & flagella
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Fill in the Parts of the Typical Cell
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Cell Surfaces cells must communicate with each other cell junctions
connect cells allow communication
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Plant Cell Connections
cell walls are multilayered between walls is a sticky polysaccharide glues cells together cell walls are thick but not completely isolated from cells next to them channels or plasmodesmata connect adjacent cells form communication system between cells connects cytoplasm of one cell with its neighbor water & small molecules are able to pass through these channels
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Animal Cell Connections
adjacent cells are connected with junctions Tight junctions binds cells closely together Adherens Desmosome attach cells with fibers forming sheets of cells Gap junctions form channels allow water & small molecules to pass
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Cell Transport lipid bilayers are not permeable to ions such as K+, Na+, Ca2+,Cl- & HCO3- channels are needed for passage two basic ways materials move in & out Passive transport mechanisms require no energy Active transport mechanisms need energy usually in form of ATP
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Transport Types Diffusion from higher to lower concentrations
gradient is formed no energy required Facilitated Diffusion diffusion using transport protein Active Transport requires energy (ATP) Osmosis only water diffusion of water across semi-permeable membrane
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Diffusion passive Molecules-in constant movement due to thermal energy of heat move from areas of higher to areas of lower concentration Random movement can be made to move directionally membrane between solution with dye on one side and no dye on other dye molecules move to side where less concentrated each molecule moves randomlynet migration is to side with no dye dye will continue to diffuse until both sides have same concentration point of dynamic equilibrium molecules will still move back & forth but at same rate there will be no change in concentration of dye on either side of membrane
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Rate of Diffusion Distance shorter distancesfaster diffusion
takes less time to eliminate concentration gradient Size of concentration gradient larger concentration gradients proceed faster than smaller ones Molecule size smaller molecules diffuse faster than larger ones Temperatures higher temps diffuse substances faster Electrical forces opposite charges attract; similar ones are opposed interior of cell membrane is negative; negative charges inside cell pulls positively charged materials into cell
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Diffusion
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Facilitated Diffusion
diffusion across cell membranes is selectively permeable impermeable to some substances others need transport proteins facilitated diffusion
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Osmosis diffusion of water through selectively permeable membrane
only refers to water movement Semi permeable membrane total concentration of dissolved ions & molecules on either side of membrane remains same since membrane is not permeable to them membrane is freely permeable to water whenever a solute concentration gradient exists concentration gradient exists for water as well water passes by diffusion from regions of lower to regions of higher solute concentration water diffuses toward solution with higher solute concentration or down concentration gradient for water
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Isotonic Solutions solutions of equal solute concentrations
do not produce osmotic flow movement of water in = movement of water out volume on both sides of membrane is unchanged
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Hypotonic Solution solutions with lower concentrations of solute on one side of the membrane water moves across membrane by osmosis cell swells if continues cell may rupture
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Hypertonic Solution concentration of solutes is greater outside cell than inside cell shrinks
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Water Balance-Osmoregulation
to survive cells must balance excessive water uptake or loss plant & bacterial cells avoid bursting in hypotonic surroundings by strong cell walls allows turgor to build turgor pressure = osmotic pressureosmosis stops fresh water fish-hypotonic environments use kidneys & gills to prevent water buildup paramecium have contractile vacuoles to bail out excess water that continually enters from hypotonic pond water
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Active Transport used to move molecules & ions against concentration gradients requires energy-ATP high energy bonds in ATP are broken to provide energy concentration gradient-not required cell can import or export regardless of intra- & extra- cellular concentrations allows cells to maintain internal concentration that is different from environmental concentrations
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Bulk Movement movement of larger molecules & large volumes of fluid
endocytosis exocytosis
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Endocytosis cell ingestion requires energy
part of plasma membrane folds inward forming a pouch pouch is pinched off from membrane so incoming materials are enclosed in a vesicle-endosome Pinocytosis cell drinking ingestion of fluids or small particles occurs in almost all cells continually not selective Phagocytosis cell eating particles are engulfed & packaged into food vacuoles occurs in specialized cells such as neutrophils & macrophages Receptor-mediated endocytosis cell selects what to ingest cholesterol is taken up by this method
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Exocytosis secretion or removal of things from cell
membrane-bound vesicles move to cell surface fuse with plasma membrane release contents into extracellular fluid
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