1. Organic Chemistry HL2 Topics 10 and 20
IB Chemistry Gr 12

2. Review Objectives (Topic 10)
Describe the features of a homologous series.
Predict and explain the trends in boiling points of members of a homologous series.
Distinguish between empirical, molecular and structural formulas.
Describe structural isomers as compounds with the same molecular formula but with different arrangements of atoms.

3. 10.1.1 Describe the features of a homologous series.
Homologous series have the same general formula with the neighboring members of the differing by a -CH2- unit.
Members of a homologous series have similar chemical properties and show a gradual change in physical properties – as mass changes so do van der Waals forces and sometimes the polarity of the molecules.

4. 10.1.2 Predict and explain the trends in boiling points of members of homologous series.
Alkane
Boiling Point °C
Methane, CH4
-164
Ethane, C2H6
-89
Propane, C3H8
-42
Butane, C4H10
-0.5
Pentane, C5H12 36
Hexane, C6H14 69
Heptane, C7H16 98
Octane, C8H18
125
Note the trend in b.p. is predictable due to increase in van der Waals’ forces with mass but it is not linear – the increase in chain length is proportionally greater for the small chains.
Other physical properties that vary predictably are density and viscosity.

5. Properties
Most organic compounds tend to be non-polar and will just have van der Waals forces and be insoluble in water.
Some functional groups contain oxygen and nitrogen and will give rise to dipole-dipole interactions and/or hydrogen bonding.
Some functional groups will also interact with water like acids or bases so they will affect the pH.
The longer the non-polar hydrocarbon chain, the less likely a molecule will mix with polar solvents like water.

6. Empirical: simplest ratio of atoms ex. C2H4O
Distinguish between empirical, molecular and structural formulas.
Empirical: simplest ratio of atoms ex. C2H4O
Molecular: actual number of atoms ex. C4H8O2
Structural (condensed): shows overall structure ex. CH3CH2CH2COOH
Full structural (displayed): shows every bond and atom ex.

7. Review Objectives
Describe structural isomers, same molecular formula but different structures
Deduce structural formulas for the isomers of the non-cyclic alkanes up to C6.
Apply IUPAC rules for naming the isomers of the non-cyclic alkanes up to C6.

8. Review Objectives http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LI5Zmh_naqU
Deduce structural formulas for the isomers of the straight chain alkenes up to C6.
Apply IUPAC rules for naming the isomers of the straight chain alkenes up to C6.

9. Classification of Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are made up of only hydrogen and carbon.

10. Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes,
Alkanes are SATURATED as they only have single bonds.
Alkenes and alkynes are UNSATURATED as they contain multiple bonds. These bonds are stronger and mean that the molecules can react more.
Alkenes contain a C=C bond.
Alkynes contain a C=C triple bond.
Alkenes are very important in the petrochemical industry as they are the starting substances to make many other compounds, such as polymers (plastic).

11. How to name organic compounds
1. Identify the longest carbon chain. Ex. pent- for 5 Cs in the longest chain. 2. Identify the type of bonding in the chain or ring. 3. Identify the functional group joined to the chain or ring. This may come at the beginning or the end. Ex. Ethanol (alcohol) 4. Numbers are used to give the position of groups or bonds in the chain. ex. But-1-ene

12. Objectives
Deduce structural formulas for compounds containing up to six carbon atoms with one of the following functional groups: alcohol, aldehyde, ketone, carboxylic acid and halide.
Apply IUPAC rules for naming compounds containing up to six carbon atoms with one of the following functional groups: alcohol, aldehyde, ketone, carboxylic acid and halide.
Identify the following functional groups when present in structural formulas: amino (NH2), benzene ring, and esters (RCOOR).

13. Objectives
Identify primary, secondary and tertiary carbon atoms in alcohols and halogenoalkanes.
Discuss the volatility and solubility in water of compounds containing the functional groups listed in
Deduce the structural formulas for compounds containing up to six carbon atoms with one of the following functional groups: amine, amide, ester and nitrile.
Apply IUPAC rules for naming compounds containing up to six carbon atoms with one of the following functional groups: amine, amide, ester, and nitrile.

14. Functional Groups Name Functional Group Prefix/suffix Example Alkane
None
-ane
CH4, methane
Alkene
C=C
-ene
CH2=CH2, ethene
Alkyne
-yne
CH=CH, ethyne
Alcohol
-OH
-anol (or hydroxy)
CH3OH, methanol
Aldehyde
-CHO
-anal
CH3CHO, ethanal
Ketone
-CO
-anone
CH3COCH3, propanone
Carboxylic Acid
-COOH
-anoic acid
CH3COOH, ethanoic acid
Halogenoalkane
-X (F, Cl, Br or I)
Halogeno- (fluoro )
CH3CH2Cl, chloroethane
Amine
-NH2
-ylamine (or amino)
CH3CH2NH2, ethylamine
Amide
-CONH2
-anamide
CH3CONH2, ethanamide
Ester
R-CO-O-R’
Alkyl -alkanoate
CH3COOCH3, methyl ethanoate
Nitrile
-CN
-anenitrile (or cyano-)
CH3-CN, ethanenitrile (cyanomethane)

15. Discuss the volatility and solubility in water of compounds containing the functional groups listed in (alcohol, aldehyde, ketone, carboxylic acid and halide.)
Volatility is a measure of how easily a substance changes into gaseous state. High volatility means that a compound has a low boiling point.
Effect on volatility of the different functional groups is summarized as:
haloalkane>aldehyde> ketone> alcohol> carboxylic acid
Solubility in water is increased by the presence of functional groups like alcohols, carboxylic acids and amines as these can all form hydrogen bonds.
Aldehydes, ketones, amides and esters have polar bonds so will be soluble in water.

16. 10.2 ALKANES
Explain the low reactivity of alkanes in terms of bond enthalpies and bond polarity.
Relatively strong bonds mean that the molecule needs a lot of energy added in order to start any reaction = low reactivity. The molecule also has many non-polar or low polarity bonds so electrophiles (seeking negative places to react) and neucleophiles (positive places) will not be attracted to it.

17. 10.2.2 Describe, using equations, the complete and incomplete combustion of alkanes
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g)  CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l) DH0 = kJ/mo
Do NOW
Write an equation for the incomplete combustion of methane.

18. Reactions of Methane and Ethane
Describe, using equations, the reactions of methane and ethane with chlorine and bromine.
Explain the reactions of methane and ethane with chlorine and bromine in terms of a free-radical mechanism.

19. 10.2.3 Describe, using equations, the reactions of methane and ethane with chlorine and bromine.
CH4 (g) + Cl2 (g) CH3Cl (g) + HCl (g) UV
Cl2 + energy Cl• + Cl• free radical formation
Cl• + C H C H •
+ HCl C H • C Cl H
+ Cl Cl
+ Cl•

20. Explain the reactions of methane and ethane with chlorine and bromine in terms of a free-radical mechanism.
The reaction mixture is stable in the dark, but UV light will initiate the reaction. The halogen bond is broken by the UV light in homolytic fission. The chlorine radicals produced are very reactive. The reaction moves through propagation and termination.

21. 10.3.1 Describe, using equations, the reactions of alkenes with hydrogen and halogens.
Alkenes can be turned into alkanes by adding hydrogen (using heat and a nickel catalyst). Halogens can also be added to alkenes to make dihaloalkanes. BUT the halogens add onto each side of the C=C bond -- there is not enough room for the halogens to comfortably fit on only one carbon. These are both ADDITION reactions.
Describe, using equations, the reactions of symmetrical alkenes with hydrogen halides and water.
Hydrating alkenes produces alcohols and hydrogenhalonating (nobody really uses this word) alkenes produces haloalkanes. Just add the small molecule across the C=C bond.

22. and/or
Markovnikov’s rule: in addition of unsymmetrical (that is, polar) reagents to alkenes, the positive portion of the reagent (usually hydrogen) adds to the carbon atom that already has the most hydrogen atoms.

23. 10.3.3 Distinguish between alkanes and alkenes using bromine water.
ALKENES, C=C will decolorize bromine water (which is red). The double bond in the alkene breaks and a bromine atom bonds to the C on each side. ALKANES do not react -- so the red of the bromine persists.
Outline the polymerization of alkenes.
Alkenes behave as monomers (simple building blocks) that can be joined together to form long chains called polymers. Ethene can make polyethene, propene can make polypropene etc. These are addition polymers - the reaction completely uses all the monomer, no extra small molecule is also produced like in condensation polymers.

24. 10.3.5 Outline the economic importance of the reactions of alkenes
Alkenes in vegetable oil can be removed by hydrogenation to make spreadable margarine -- and a profit. Ethene can also be hydrated to form the fuel ethanol. Alkenes are polymerized to make plastics such as polyethene or polypropene, with multiple uses as packaging, clothing etc.

25. Alkenes and Steam
If superheated steam, H2O(g), is added to an alkene at 300°C and 7 atm, a reversible reaction occurs which produces ETHANOL.
This is an important industrial process as ethanol is used in large quantities as a solvent and an intermediate to make other compounds.
At 1 atm the eqm lies to the left and alkenes are formed by the dehydration of alcohols.
Catalyst used in both directions is concentrated H2SO4.

26. 10.4 Alcohols
Describe, using equations, the complete combustion of alcohols.
Describe, using equations, the oxidation reactions of alcohols.
Determine the products formed by the oxidation of primary and secondary alcohols.

27. Alcohols Their general formula is CnH2n+1OH.
The -OH is polar which increases the volatility and the solubility in water compared to alkanes of similar mass.
The best known alcohol is ethanol, C2H5OH,which dissolves readily in water and is present in alcoholic drinks.
Ethanol for use in drinks is produced through fermentation of sugars like glucose – this is a slow process that requires warm anaerobic conditions.
3 Classes of Alcohols:
1. primary: – has –OH attached to a terminal C.
2. secondary: has –OH attached to a middle C.
3. tertiary: has –OH attached to a C connected to 3 other Cs.

28. Oxidation of Alcohols
The H atoms attached to the C with the –OH group are readily oxidized so these 3 classes of alcohols behave in different ways.
A common oxidizing agent is acidified potassium dichromate(VI). H2SO4 is commonly used as the acid.
Tertiary alcohols do not have any reactive H atoms and are not readily oxidized.
Secondary alcohols have one reactive H and undergo oxidation to form ketones.

29. Oxidation of Alcohols Primary alcohols  aldehydes  carboxylic acids.
Both aldehydes and alcohols are polar but alcohols can participate in hydrogen bonding in addition to dipole-dipole forces so they have higher boiling points. Aldehydes only have dipole-dipole forces.
To obtain the aldehyde in the lab the alcohol is added to the boiling oxidizing agent so that as soon as the more volatile aldehyde is formed it distills off.
To obtain the carboxylic acid rather than the aldehyde a more concentrated solution of the oxidizing agent is added and the mixture is refluxed so that the aldehyde cannot escape.
Heating under reflux allows us to carry out a reaction at the boiling point of the solvent without any loss of the solvent.
The vapor of the boiling solvent turns back to liquid in a vertical condenser and drips back into the flask.

30. Properties and Reactions of Carboxylic Acids
Generally weak acids
React with alcohols to form esters
Neutralization
Production of acid halides (intermediates in syntheses)

31. Amines Amines are organic bases with the general formula R3N.
CH3NH2 + H2O RNH3+ + OH-
Neutralization
CH3CH2NH2 + HCl CH3CH2NH3+Cl-

32. 20.2 Nucleophilic Substitution
Explain why the hydroxide ion is a better nucleophile than water.
Explain how the rate of Sn1/Sn2 in halogenoalkanes by OH- depends on if the halogenoalkane is primary, secondary or tertiary.
Sn2 reactions have higher activation energy (and an unstable reaction intermediate) and so are slower than Sn1 reactions. (Sn1 is a 2 step process with tertiary haloalkanes – FAST)
Describe the substitution reactions of halogenoalkanes with NH3 and KCN

33. Nucleophilic Substitution
Explain the Sn2 reactions of primary halogenoalkanes with NH3 and KCN
Describe the reduction of nitriles using H2 and Ni catalyst

34. Elimination Reactions
Describe, using equations, the elimination of HBr from bromoalkanes
Warm OH-(aq) reacts with bromoalkanes by substitution (Sn1 or Sn2) BUT if hot OH-(ethanol) is used then an "elimination" reaction will occur and ethene will be the product. This shows that the same reactants but a different solvent can cause a different chemical reaction.

35. 20.3.2 Describe/explain the mechanism for elimination of HBr from bromoalkanes.
No-one is quite sure how much detail the IB want here (text books disagree) -- so this video contain the most you need to know.

36. Condensation Reactions
Reactions of alcohols with carboxylic acids to form esters. State uses of esters.
Reacting an alcohol with a carboxylic acid in warm sulfuric acid produces an ester and water. This is a condensation reaction (a small extra molecule is produced -- in this case water). The sulfuric acid acts as a catalyst. The equation is in equilibrium. Esters have a "fruity" smell (mostly), and are found in fruit. They also make good solvents due to their intermediate polarity (not polar -- not really non-polar!). They are also highly flammable.

37. Esters
Esters have the general formula R′COOR, where R is a hydrocarbon group.
Characteristic odors and flavors
Hydrolysis
Alkaline hydrolysis (saponification)

38. Reaction Pathways
Deduce reaction pathways given the starting materials and the product.
Deduce reaction pathways given the starting materials and the product.

39. Condensation Reactions
Describe, using equations, the reactions of amines with carboxylic acids.
Amines react with carboxylic acids to produce an amide and a water molecule. This is a condensation reaction (the products include a small molecule and a larger product)
Deduce structures of the polymers formed by alcohols and carboxylic acids
Deduce the structures of the polymers formed by amines with carboxylic acids.

40. Stereoisomerism
Stereoisomers-same structural formula, different spacial arrangement of atomshttp:
Geometric Isomerism in Alkenes

41. Stereoisomerism
Describe/explain geometrical isomerism in C3,C4 cycloalkanes
Explain the difference in physical/chemical properties of geometrical isomers
Describe and explain optical isomerism in simple organic molecules.
If a carbon atom in a molecule has 4 different atoms or groups attached it is known as being "chiral" or "asymmetric". Such chiral carbons produce chiral molecules. A chiral molecule and the molecule that is its reflection are called "enantiomers". A 50:50 mixture of enantiomers is called "racemic". Butan-2-ol and 2-bromo butane are both chiral molecules.