1. Organizational Change Theories
Closed Systems
Structuralism
Open Systems
Contingency Theories
Conflict Theories
Critical Theories
Resistance Theories
Diffusion Theories
Connectivism Theories
Chaos Theories

2. Machine Theory Frederick Taylor “Principals of Scientific Management—
scientific method to improve productivity,
optimizing tasks,
simplifying jobs,
Specializing
Time Studies – most efficient way to perform a job
initiatives and incentives increase productivity
Reorganized from the bottom up (task to manager)

3. Machine Theory Frederick Taylor “Principals of Scientific Management—
4 Principles
Replace rule of thumb work with task studies
Scientifically train & develop worker
Cooperate with workers to ensure efficiency
Divide work equally between managers & workers so managers could plan as workers worked

4. Machine Theory Frederick Taylor “Principals of Scientific Management—
Drawbacks
Increase in monotony of work
Missing from job – skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback
Dehumanizing

5. Machine Theory Fayol – Administrative Theory
Reorganized from the top-down
Formalized studies general guidelines for the worker
Hierarchical pyramid structure of control
Superiors and subordinates—chain of command
Departmentalization groups related by process, purpose, or place
Organization is a machine to produce a product as efficient as possible.

6. Machine Theory Max Weber (1900) Bureaucracy Theory
Ideal bureaucracy has hierarchy
Impersonal
Written rules of conduct
Promotion based on achievement
Division of labor for efficiency
Goal oriented
Draw back  relied on benevolence of superiors

7. HR & Motivational Theories
Elton Mayo
Hawthorne Studies
Work is a group activity
Need for recognition, security and sense of belonging
Complaints revolve around sense of status
Group collaboration must be planned and developed to develop cohesion to resist disruptions
Organization is a social group or work team

8. HR & Motivational Theories
Abraham Maslow (1940s)
5 Needs
Physiological
Safety
Love
Esteem
Self-actualization or self-fulfillment
The urge to create, produce, for job satisfaction
Management should meet the upper needs

9. HR & Motivational Theories
Douglas McGregor “The Human Side of Enterprise” (1960) 2 types of managerial assumptions (Theory X & Y)
Theory X Assumptions
Humans have a dislike for work – must be controlled or threatened to do work
Most people want direction, dislike responsibility, desires security above all else
Most people need to know what is expected of them and be held accountable.

10. HR & Motivational Theories
Douglas McGregor “The Human Side of Enterprise” (1960) 2 types of managerial assumptions (Theory X & Y)
Theory Y Assumptions
Work is a natural state for humans
Man can direct his own steps if he is committed to the goals of the organization—if explained fully & grasps vision
If the job is satisfying, people will be committed
Most men seek responsibility
Creativity and ingenuity can be used by employees to solve problems
Most people have a lot more potential than they are given the opportunity to use.

11. HR & Motivational Theories
Frederick Herzberg
2 Factor Hygiene & Motivation Theory
Hygiene Theory
Job environment, the company, policies, administration, kind of supervision, working conditions, interpersonal relations, salary, status, and security

12. HR & Motivational Theories
Frederick Herzberg
2 Factor Hygiene & Motivation Theory
Motivation Theory
Job Opportunities – achievement, recognition, growth / advancement
Interest in the job
Both approaches must be done simultaneously. Treat people as best you can AND
Use them in jobs where they can achieve and grow

13. HR & Motivational Theories
Lewins – Informal groups

14. Structuralism – Bridge between Open & Closed Systems (1930-70s)
Political struggle between rational and irrational

15. Structuralism – Bridge between Open & Closed Systems (1930-70s)
Chester Bernard (1938)
The Functions of the Executive
Recycled Spencer’s Organismic Perspective
Organizations exist by cooperation, willingness of workers, contributions toward a common purpose
Management creates the goals & Moral Imperative that binds workers to collective good

16. Structuralism – Bridge between Open & Closed Systems (1930-70s)
Philip Selznick & Institutionalism
Resurrects Machine Theory with a twist
Organization strikes bargains with its environment that change the present objectives
Organization has such personality that reflects social needs and pressures (adaptation) from the environment
Operative Goals – what it does
Professed Goals – what it says it does (preparing students for the future)

17. Selznick (1996)
Organizations seek “legitimacy” to justify what they do.
They tend to seek similarity for legitimacy
Coercive Isomorphism—forced to act a certain way by either another organization (TEA) or cultural expectations – my school had doors & windows
Mimetic Isomorphism—copy each other when they are uncertain what to do
Normative Isomorphism—everyone takes the same training and interact professionally

18. Structuralism – Bridge between Open & Closed Systems (1930-70s)
Ralph Stogdill (1948) -Tautological
124 Characteristics of Leaders
Capacity (intelligence, alertness)
Achievement (scholarship, knowledge)
Responsibility (dependable, initiative)
Participation (active, social, cooperative)
Status (socio-economic, position, popularity)
Situation (mental level, status, skills)

19. Structuralism – Bridge between Open & Closed Systems (1930-70s)
McCall & Lombardo (1983) Anti-Traits
Insensitive to others (abrasive, bully)
Cold, aloof, arrogant
Betrayal of trust
Overly ambitious: thinking of next job,
Specific performance problems
Over-managing – unable to delegate
Unable to think strategically
Unable to adapt
Over-dependent on a mentor

20. Open-System Theory Katz & Kahn(1978)
Organization’s adaptive interaction with changing environment emphasized: goal is survival
Organization is active system=
Input
Throughput
output
Organization is a living organism

21. Open Systems (1960s)
Open systems are made up of subsystems that create homeostatsis for the organism. Mapping the environment requires sensing and assigning meaning to symbolic Information
Imprints parts of the environment onto the organization.
Symbolic  Motivation & Communication
Feedback allows system to change goals “on the fly”

22. Open Systems (1960s) Harold Leavitt (1964) 4 subsystems
Tasks—processes performed in system
Structure—organization, governed
Technology—type of equipment, knowledge, methods
Humans—skills, attitudes, roles, motivators

23. Open Systems (1960s) Daniel Katz & Robert Kahn(1966) 5 subsystems
Technology—production
Managerial
Supportive –interact with environment for influx of energy
Maintenance—forces of stability
Adaptive—forces devoted to change

24. Open Systems (1960s) John Seiler’s (1967) Forces in the environment
Internal
Inputs
Outputs
Actual behaviors

25. Open Systems (1960s) Getzel-Guba Model morphed Environment
CommunitiesCollectivesNorms, Values
Social System (school)
GroupsIndividual
Interdependencies  personalities
Role expectationNeeds
School’s Response

26. Open Systems (1960s) Getzel-Guba Model morphed
Carol Shakeshaft & Irene Nowell (1984) argued that GG Model did not describe the reality of the feminine experience – especially with role expectations “keepers of the private realm”

27. Open Systems (1960s) Getzel-Guba Model morphed Environment
CommunitiesCollectivesNorms, Values
Social System (school)
GroupsIndividual
Interdependencies  personalities
Role expectationNeeds
School’s Response

28. Open Systems (1960s)
Process Theoryinteractive processes that underlie motivation
Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
Valency=Effort + Expectancy +Choice

29. Flow of Information Machine Theory – bottom up
Bureaucracy Theory – top down
HR – horizontal and vertical inside organization
Structuralism – depending on leadership traits
Open systems – horizontal & vertical both inside and outside the organization, loop-backs
J.G. Miller’s Information Overload

30. Flow of Information
J.G. Miller’s Information Overload
Results in
Omission
Error
Queuing
Filtering
Approximation
Siemen’s Connectivists Theory of hyper processing & multitasking.

31. Contingency Theory Positivistic Nomothetic—law-like regularities
Methodologically positivistic – empirical research (measures variables & statistical analysis)
Structure measured by material factors rather than idealistic factors
Deterministic –required responses
Consciously scientific style

32. Contingency Theory (1960-70s)
Generalizable relationship between organizational and environmental contingencies, organizational structure, and leadership.
Organizational contingencies include size, task structure, environmental factors – usually uncertainty
The leader’s job is to alter the organizational structure to keep the system in sync with environmental contingencies
Lawrence & Lorsch (1967)

33. Contingency Theory (1960-70s)
Lawrence & Lorsch (1967)
Differentiation of
specialists
Predictable environments foster stable craftsmen
Generalists are required for unstable environments
Space – depts in different locations
Structure /Leadership Styles
Size

34. Contingency Theory (1960-70s)
Structure /Leadership Styles

35. Conflict Theory

36. Critical Theory

37. Innovation, Diffusion, Change Theory
Hargreaves & Fullen (1996) change is “messy”
Everett Rogers:
Process of distributing innovation through a social system – communication-based model
Community of Teachers (not learners) seem to share superficial tricks or tips but not deep investigations into issues of teaching, learning and the profession.

38. Diffusion formal & Informal Communities
Everett Rogers (1995) Diffusion of Innovations
Example: Self-organizing virtual learning communities versus the processes in bounded learning communities
4-Elements Present
The new idea – innovation
Communication channels
Time
Social System engaged in joint problem solving activities to accomplish goals

39. Diffusion Theory - Rogers
Innovations as perceived by individuals
Relative advantage – better than what we are doing?
Compatibility-consistent with existing values, needs
Complexity—difficult to understand or use?
Trialability –is it used on a limited basis
Observability – do we see results?
Support – time, energy, resources, political backing

40. Diffusion Process -- Rogers
E.M. Rogers(1995) Diffusion of Innovations
5-Step Adoption Process
Awareness --knowledge
Interest--persuasion
Decision—engages in activity
Trial /Implementation
Confirmation -- Adoption

41. Diffusion Process Rate of Adoption Perceived attributes of innovation
Type of innovation-decision
Communication channels
Nature of the social system
Extent of change agents’ promotion efforts

42. Tipping Point
The concept of the tipping point is the build-up of small changes that effect a big change
Stickiness Factor –staying power of an innovation –keeping one’s attention
Internet’s greatest economy is in fact, attention.

43. Fullen & Miles (1992) 7 reasons reform fails in Schools
Faulty ‘Change Maps” – to be unique is not a good reason for change
Complex Problems
Symbols over substance – adopt external innovations with only symbolic benefit – CC! Not enough grass-roots support
Impatient and Superficial Solutions
Misunderstanding Resistance –may be a learning curve issue
Attrition of Pockets of success
Misuse of Knowledge of Change Process

44. Fullen & Miles (1992) 7 reasons reform succeeds in Schools
Change is learning
Change is a journey not a blueprint – planning is continuous
Problems are our friends—assertive problem-solving must take place
Change is Resource Hungery—time & $$
Change requires Power to manage
Change is Systemic – interrelational, structure, policy, culture
Implemented locally—cannot happen from a distance

45. Fullen & Miles (1992) other reasons reform succeeds in Schools
Common language,
Conceptual picture—of change process and goals
Multiple stakeholders at different levels participate in reform process
Culture is a priority – relationships must improve to create conditions to share ideas
Sharing of successes and failures
Change is inevitable and we must learn to live with it.

46. Berkman’s UOID Theory Influenced by Rogers
Berkmans User-Oriented Instructional Designers theory
Identify the potential adopter
Measure the potential adopters perceptions
Design & develop a user-friendly product
Inform the potential adopter
Provide post adoption support
(Burkman in Gagne, 1987, pp 440-1) – this was our model for the TARGET grant –Line Coaches—relationship between developer & adopter was critical

47. Rogers (1962, 1995) Adoption Categories explored Innovators
Early adopters—visionary users, project oriented, risk takers, self-sufficient, cross-curricular communication can integrate
Early majority—pragmatic users, process oriented, may require support, departmental
Late majority
Laggards

48. Concerns-based Adoption Model (CBAM) --Hall & Hord
Hall & Hord (1987) macro level theory of diffusion
Bottom-up, systemic change
Framework includes “stages of concern”
7-Stages

49. 7 Stages Hord Awareness –TCEA, Research, Vendors
Informational—Like to know more
Personal –how will it affect them?
Management—processes & tasks (information & resources)
Consequence – impact students?
Collaboration—teachers cooperate with others in implementing innovation
Refocusing—thinking of additional alternatives that might work better ready to move on

50. Strategies Addressing Concerns
Clarify problem, arouse interest, let them generate possible solutions
Give clear info about change, show how change is similar or diff from current
Validate and legitimize concerns, reinforce, connect to supports
Break the change into manageable steps, “how to”, give practical solutions to logistical problems

51. Strategies Addressing Concerns
5. Arrange visits to places that use the change, provide positive feedback & dialog
6. Monitor --Provide encouragement, help refine ideas
7.Develop PR campaigns, broadcast or market innovation--conferences

52. J.M.Keller’s Motivation Model for Instructional Design
ARCS Model
ATTENTION – arouse & sustain learner’s curiosity
Relevance – Need to relate Instruction to Learner’s Needs
Confidence – Need to Match Learner’s Challenges to Learner’s Capabilities
Satisfaction—Need to provide learner with Extrinsic and Intrinsic Rewards

53. Resistance Theory
Michael Fullen’s (2003) “The moral imperative of school leadership” change is “messy”
Rests on a “change agent”
Creating Knowledge with stakeholders builds Relationships which is critical
Integrating Technology
Moral purpose

54. Resistance Theory
Michael Fullen’s (2003) “The moral imperative of school leadership” change is “messy”
Six-point Strategic model of transforming leadership
Reshape Culture by building a community of professional learners – capacity building
Change the context, then you can change behavior – move from one grade or subject
Mutual Vision – high expectations
Disciplined Inquiry – data-driven decision making
Moral purpose—desire to do the right thing & the wish to make a difference
Responsibility – teacher – leaders & collaborators

55. Kotter’s 8 Stage Change Process
Establish a sense of urgency
Opportunities /crisis demand change NOW
Create a Guiding Team
gather change agents with credibility, skills, authority to assist in the change
Develop a vision & Strategy
Clear uplifting statement of goal & plan
Communicate the Change Vision
Clear, uplifting, repeated messages

56. Kotter’s 8 Stage Change Process
Empower Organizational Members
Remove obstacles, change structures
Reward new ideas & risk-taking
Generate Short-term Wins
Early success is critical
Celebrate & reward people
Consolidate Gains & Continue Change
Don’t let up!
Anchor New Ways into the Culture
Make change stick

57. Lewin’s Change Model Unfreezing Moving Refreezing
Diagnose need for change, status quo no longer acceptable
Prepare people & plan change
Moving
Implement changes
Overcome resistance
Refreezing
Institutionalize new ways

58. Structural Adaptation to Regain Fit
Donaldson’s SARFIT Model ( )
5 Stages
An organization is in fit
There is a contingency change
The organization is in misfit & performance suffers
The organization does structural adaptation
The organization achieves a new fit and performance recovers

59. Change Quotes
“A great many people think they are thinking when they are merely rearranging their prejudices” – William James
“Life is change. Growth is optional. Choose wisely” Karen Kaiser Clark
“I can’t understand why people are frightened of new ideas. I’m afraid of the old ones.” John Cage
“All progress is precarious, and the solution of one problem brings us face to face with another problem” Martin Luther King, Jr.

60. Change Quotes
“It isn’t that they can’t see the solution. It is that they can’t see the problem.” G.K. Chesterton
“I never give them hell. I just tell the truth and they think its hell.” Harry S. Truman
“You must be the change you wish to see in the world.” Gandhi
“Example is not the main thing in influencing others, it’s the only thing” Albert Schweitzer

61. Change Quotes
“I not only use all the brains I have, but all I can borrow.” Woodrow Wilson
“You can’t jump a twenty-foot chasm in two ten-foot leaps” American Proverb
“We have to get everybody in the organization involved. If we do that, the best ideas rise to the top.” Jack Welch

62. Chaos Theory