1. Electromagnetism Lecture#11
Instructor:
Engr. Muhammad Mateen Yaqoob

2. Guidelines about Final Term Exam
Course Contents:
Lecture # 6 to Lecture # 11
Also includes the assignment and quiz
Pattern of Final Paper:
Total Marks = 45 marks
Paper will be from the slides and some part may be cover from book
Short Questions (one-two line answer) = 15 marks [10x1.5 or 15x1]
Long Questions = 20 marks [2 questions will have parts]
Numerical = 10 marks [1 will have parts or 2 separate ones]
Paper will be logical
Get yourself prepared
Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

3. Important Announcements
Viva of lab will be on & in designated timings.
Students are required to bring all the labs on that day in hard copy only.
No excuse will be accepted.
Presentations on the assigned will be from next week
Schedule will be available on mateen.yolasite.com
Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

4. Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science
Categories of Solids
There are three categories of solids, based on their conducting properties:
conductors
semiconductors
insulators
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5. Electrical Resistivity and Conductivity of Selected Materials at 293 K
Electrical Resistivity and Conductivity of Selected Materials at 293 K
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6. Reviewing the previous table reveals that:
The electrical conductivity at room temperature is quite different for each of these three kinds of solids
Metals have the highest conductivities
followed by semiconductors
and then by insulators
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7. Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science
Band Theory of Solids
In order to account for decreasing resistivity with increasing temperature as well as other properties of semiconductors, a new theory known as the band theory is introduced.
The essential feature of the band theory is that the allowed energy states for electrons are nearly continuous over certain ranges, called energy bands, with forbidden energy gaps between the bands.
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Valence band: Band occupied by the outermost electrons
Conduction: Lowest band with unoccupied states
Conductor: Valence band partially filled (half full) Cu.
or Conduction band overlaps the valence band
Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

9. Resistivity vs. Temperature
Figure: (a) Resistivity versus temperature for a typical conductor. Notice the linear rise in resistivity with increasing temperature at all but very low temperatures. (b) Resistivity versus temperature for a typical conductor at very low temperatures. Notice that the curve flattens and approaches a nonzero resistance as T → 0. (c) Resistivity versus temperature for a typical semiconductor. The resistivity increases dramatically as T → 0.
Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

10. Band Theory and Conductivity
Band theory helps us understand what makes a conductor, insulator, or semiconductor.
Good conductors like copper can be understood using the free electron
It is also possible to make a conductor using a material with its highest band filled, in which case no electron in that band can be considered free.
If this filled band overlaps with the next higher band, however (so that effectively there is no gap between these two bands) then an applied electric field can make an electron from the filled band jump to the higher level.
This allows conduction to take place, although typically with slightly higher resistance than in normal metals. Such materials are known as semimetals.
Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

11. Valence and Conduction Bands
The band structures of insulators and semiconductors resemble each other qualitatively. Normally there exists in both insulators and semiconductors a filled energy band (referred to as the valence band) separated from the next higher band (referred to as the conduction band) by an energy gap.
If this gap is at least several electron volts, the material is an insulator. It is too difficult for an applied field to overcome that large an energy gap, and thermal excitations lack the energy to promote sufficient numbers of electrons to the conduction band.
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12. Smaller energy gaps create semiconductors
For energy gaps smaller than about 1 electron volt, it is possible for enough electrons to be excited thermally into the conduction band, so that an applied electric field can produce a modest current.
The result is a semiconductor.
Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

13. Temperature and Resistivity
When the temperature is increased from T = 0, more and more atoms are found in excited states.
The increased number of electrons in excited states explains the temperature dependence of the resistivity of semiconductors.
Only those electrons that have jumped from the valence band to the conduction band are available to participate in the conduction process in a semiconductor. More and more electrons are found in the conduction band as the temperature is increased, and the resistivity of the semiconductor therefore decreases.
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15. Holes and Intrinsic Semiconductors
When electrons move into the conduction band, they leave behind vacancies in the valence band. These vacancies are called holes. Because holes represent the absence of negative charges, it is useful to think of them as positive charges.
Whereas the electrons move in a direction opposite to the applied electric field, the holes move in the direction of the electric field.
A semiconductor in which there is a balance between the number of electrons in the conduction band and the number of holes in the valence band is called an intrinsic semiconductor.
Examples of intrinsic semiconductors include pure carbon and germanium.
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Figure An intrinsic semiconductor. The electrons move toward the left and the holes move toward the right when the applied electric field is to the right as shown.
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17. Impurity Semiconductor
It is possible to fine-tune a semiconductor’s properties by adding a small amount of another material, called a dopant, to the semiconductor creating what is a called an impurity semiconductor.
As an example, silicon has four electrons in its outermost shell (this corresponds to the valence band) and arsenic has five.
Thus while four of arsenic’s outer-shell electrons participate in covalent bonding with its nearest neighbors (just as another silicon atom would), the fifth electron is very weakly bound.
It takes only about 0.05 eV to move this extra electron into the conduction band.
The effect is that adding only a small amount of arsenic to silicon greatly increases the electrical conductivity.
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18. Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science
Extra weakly bound valence electron from As lies in an energy level
close to the empty conduction band. These levels donate electrons to
the conduction band.
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19. Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science
n-type Semiconductor
The addition of arsenic to silicon creates what is known as an n-type semiconductor (n for negative), because it is the electrons close to the conduction band that will eventually carry electrical current.
The new arsenic energy levels just below the conduction band are called donor levels because an electron there is easily donated to the conduction band.
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Ga has only three electrons and creates a hole in one of the bonds. As electrons move into the hole the hole moves driving electric current
Impurity creates empty energy levels just above the filled valence band
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21. Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science
Acceptor Levels
Consider what happens when indium is added to silicon.
Indium has one less electron in its outer shell than silicon. The result is one extra hole per indium atom. The existence of these holes creates extra energy levels just above the valence band, because it takes relatively little energy to move another electron into a hole
Those new indium levels are called acceptor levels because they can easily accept an electron from the valence band. Again, the result is an increased flow of current (or, equivalently, lower electrical resistance) as the electrons move to fill holes under an applied electric field
It is always easier to think in terms of the flow of positive charges (holes) in the direction of the applied field, so we call this a p-type semiconductor (p for positive).
acceptor levels p-Type semiconductors
In addition to intrinsic and impurity semiconductors, there are many compound semiconductors, which consist of equal numbers of two kinds of atoms.
Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

22. Intrinsic Semiconductor
Elemental or pure semiconductors have equal numbers of holes and electrons
Depends on temperature, type, and size.
Compound Semiconductors can be formed from two (or more) elements (e.g., GaAs)
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23. Extrinsic Semiconductors
A pure semiconductors where a small amount of another element is added to replace atoms in the lattice (doping).
The aim is to produce an excess of either electrons (n-type) or holes (p-type)
Typical doping concentrations are one part in ten million
Doping must be uniform throughout the lattice so that charges do not accumulate
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24. Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science
N-Type and P-Type
One valence electron too many (n-type)
Arsenic, antimony, bismuth, phosphorus
One valence electron too few (p-type)
Aluminum, indium, gallium, boron
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25. Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science
At a pn junction holes diffuse from the p side
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The PN Junction Diode
Start with a P and N type material. Note that there are excess negatives in the n-type and excess positives in the p-type
Merge the two – some of the negatives migrate over to the p-type, filling in the holes. The yellow region is called the depletion zone.
More positive than rest of N
More negative than rest of P
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27. Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science
Biasing the Junction
Apply a voltage as indicated. The free charge carriers (negative charges in the N material and positive charges in the P material) are attracted to the ends of the crystal. No charge flows across the junction and the depletion zone grows. This is called reverse bias.
Switch polarity. Now the negative charges are driven toward the junction in the N material and the positive charges also are driven toward the junction in the P material. The depletion zone shrinks and will disappear if the voltage exceeds a threshold. This is called forward bias.
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28. Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science
Diode Circuit Symbols
P material (anode)
N material (cathode)
Forward Bias
Reverse Bias
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29. Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science
Types of Diodes
Rectifier Diode
Used in power supplies
Signal Diode
Used in switches, detectors, mixers, etc.
Zener Diode
Voltage regulation – operated reverse bias in the avalanche region
Reference Diode
Used like zener for voltage regulation
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Rectification
Conversion of ac to dc.
Many devices (transistors) are unidirectional current devices
DC required for proper operation.
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Half Wave Rectifier
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32. Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science
Full Wave Rectifier
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33. Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science
Bridge Rectifier
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34. Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
When forward biased, electrons from the N-type material may recombine with holes in the P-type material.
System energy is decreased
Excess energy emitted as light
Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) semiconductors have been used to make colored LEDs
Stop lights
Progress toward white LEDs is promising
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35. Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science
Laser Diodes
Used in forward bias.
Electrons move into depletion zone and recombine with holes, producing light (like an LED).
More electron-hole recombinations can be stimulated by this photon, producing more photons at the same wavelength.
The mirrors reflect the photons back and forth through the depletion zone, stimulating more photon at each pass.
Eventually, the beam passes out of the right hand mirror.
N material
P material
Highly Reflective Mirror
Partially Reflective Mirror
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36. Laser Diode Application
Used as CD and DVD detector
Laser Diode
Photodiode
Also used as bar code readers, laser pointers, fiber optics, etc.
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37. Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science
LCD
Liquid Crystal Display
State between solid and liquid
Requires only a little heat to change material into a liquid
Used as thermometers or mood rings
Electric currents are used to orient the crystals in predictable ways
The liquid crystals polarize the light (either internal light source or external) to give light and dark areas on the display
Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

38. Integrated Circuits
The most important use of all these semiconductor devices today is not in discrete components, but rather in integrated circuits called chips.
Some integrated circuits contain a million or more components such as resistors, capacitors, and transistors.
Two benefits: miniaturization and processing speed.

39. Moore’s Law and Computing Power
Figure: Moore’s law, showing the progress in computing power over a 30-year span, illustrated here with Intel chip names. The Pentium 4 contains over 50 million transistors.

40. Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology is generally defined as the scientific study and manufacture of materials on a submicron scale.
These scales range from single atoms (on the order of .1 nm up to 1 micron ( nm).
This technology has applications in engineering, chemistry, and the life sciences and, as such, is interdisciplinary.