1. Corona Tutorial Dave Phillips Submarine Operating Authority Engineering Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center San Diego, California IEEE Joint Technical Committee Meeting 2007 Orlando, Florida 7 January – 10 January

2. What Is Corona?

5. Corona is a luminous discharge due to ionization of the air surrounding an electrode, caused by a voltage gradient exceeding a certain critical value.

6. Example of Conductor Corona

7. Whats The Fuss?

8. Corona from conductors and hardware may cause audible noise and radio noise Corona from conductors and hardware may cause audible noise and radio noise

9. Whats The Fuss? Corona from conductors and hardware may cause audible noise and radio noise Audible noise from conductors may violate noise standards Audible noise from conductors may violate noise standards

10. Whats The Fuss? Corona from conductors and hardware may cause audible noise and radio noise Audible noise from conductors may violate noise standards Radio noise from conductors may interfere with communications or navigation Radio noise from conductors may interfere with communications or navigation

11. Whats The Fuss? Corona from conductors and hardware may cause audible noise and radio noise Audible noise from conductors may violate noise standards Radio noise from conductors may interfere with communications or navigation Corona loss may be significant when compared with resistive loss of conductors Corona loss may be significant when compared with resistive loss of conductors

12. Whats The Fuss? Corona from conductors and hardware may cause audible noise and radio noise Audible noise from conductors may violate noise standards Radio noise from conductors may interfere with communications or navigation Corona loss may be significant when compared with resistive loss of conductors Corona can cause possible damage to polymeric insulators Corona can cause possible damage to polymeric insulators

13. Corona Discharge Currents are Impulsive I c (t) t 0.01 – 0.1 μsec

14. Physical Parameters of Corona Corona is caused by the ionization of the media (air) surrounding the electrode (conductor) Corona is caused by the ionization of the media (air) surrounding the electrode (conductor)

15. Physical Parameters of Corona Corona is caused by the ionization of the media (air) surrounding the electrode (conductor) Corona onset is a function of voltage Corona onset is a function of voltage

16. Physical Parameters of Corona Corona is caused by the ionization of the media (air) surrounding the electrode (conductor) Corona onset is a function of voltage Corona onset is a function of relative air density Corona onset is a function of relative air density

17. Physical Parameters of Corona Corona is caused by the ionization of the media (air) surrounding the electrode (conductor) Corona onset is a function of voltage Corona onset is a function of relative air density Corona onset is a function of relative humidity Corona onset is a function of relative humidity

18. Corona and the Electric Field Corona is NOT solely a function of the Electric Field

19. Corona and the Electric Field Corona is NOT solely a function of the Electric Field Corona is a function of the electric field on the surface of the electrode (conductor)

20. Corona and the Electric Field Corona is NOT solely a function of the Electric Field Corona is a function of the electric field on the surface of the electrode (conductor) Corona is also a function of the radius of curvature of the electrode (conductor)

21. Corona and the Electric Field Corona is NOT solely a function of the Electric Field Corona is a function of the electric field on the surface of the electrode (conductor) Corona is also a function of the radius of curvature of the electrode (conductor) Corona is also a function of the rate of decay of the electric field away from the electrode (conductor)

22. Corona and the Electric Field For the preceding reasons, selecting the conductor with the smallest electric field at its surface is not correct. One utility found out (the hard way) that simply choosing large diameter conductors did not work well because the electric field decayed slowly away from the surface

23. Corona and the Relative Air Density

24. Corona has an inverse relationship with air density Corona has an inverse relationship with air density

25. Corona and the Relative Air Density Corona has an inverse relationship with air density Corona has an inverse relationship with air density Standard line designs that perform well at sea level, may have significant corona issues if used on lines that are installed over mountainous areas Standard line designs that perform well at sea level, may have significant corona issues if used on lines that are installed over mountainous areas

26. Corona and the Humidity

27. Corona has an inverse relationship with humidity at power frequencies Corona has an inverse relationship with humidity at power frequencies

28. Corona and the Humidity Corona has an inverse relationship with humidity at power frequencies Corona has an inverse relationship with humidity at power frequencies Fair weather corona is more prevalent in low humidity environments Fair weather corona is more prevalent in low humidity environments

29. Corona Is Dependent Surface Condition Of The Conductors

30. Corona is enhanced by irregularities on the conductor surface Corona is enhanced by irregularities on the conductor surface

31. Corona Is Dependent Surface Condition Of The Conductors Corona is enhanced by irregularities on the conductor surface Corona is enhanced by irregularities on the conductor surface Irregularities include: dust, insects, burrs and scratches and water drops present on new conductors Irregularities include: dust, insects, burrs and scratches and water drops present on new conductors

32. Corona Is Dependent Surface Condition Of The Conductors Corona is enhanced by irregularities on the conductor surface Corona is enhanced by irregularities on the conductor surface Irregularities include: dust, insects, burrs and scratches and water drops present on new conductors Irregularities include: dust, insects, burrs and scratches and water drops present on new conductors Corona will generally be greater on new conductors and will decrease to a steady- state value over a period of approximately one year in-service Corona will generally be greater on new conductors and will decrease to a steady- state value over a period of approximately one year in-service

33. Corona Is Dependent Surface Condition Of The Conductors Corona is enhanced by irregularities on the conductor surface Corona is enhanced by irregularities on the conductor surface Irregularities include: dust, insects, burrs and scratches and water drops present on new conductors Irregularities include: dust, insects, burrs and scratches and water drops present on new conductors Corona will generally be greater on new conductors and will decrease to a steady-state value over a period of approximately one year in- service Corona will generally be greater on new conductors and will decrease to a steady-state value over a period of approximately one year in- service Corona is significantly increased in foul weather. Corona is significantly increased in foul weather.

34. Corona Is Dependent On Local Electrode Geometry

39. Why is it a special problem for voltage upgrades? If the voltage of a transmission line is increased without changing the line design, the electric field at the surface of the line conductors (and hardware) will increase. This increase will cause additional corona The same can be said for compact transmission lines.

40. Practical Consequences 1. Larger conductors better – to a point 2. Use conductor bundles to reduce corona 3. Corona phenomena much worse in foul weather, high altitude 4. Compact lines more susceptible 5. New conductors can lead to poor corona performance for a while

41. Cautions Regarding Radio Noise

42. Radio noise from corona should not be confused with radio noise generated by spark discharge Radio noise from corona should not be confused with radio noise generated by spark discharge

43. Cautions Regarding Radio Noise Radio noise from corona should not be confused with radio noise generated by spark discharge Radio noise from corona should not be confused with radio noise generated by spark discharge High frequency complaints are almost always due to sparks High frequency complaints are almost always due to sparks

44. Cautions Regarding Radio Noise Radio noise from corona should not be confused with radio noise generated by spark discharge Radio noise from corona should not be confused with radio noise generated by spark discharge High frequency complaints are almost always due to sparks High frequency complaints are almost always due to sparks Causes of spark discharges can be located and repaired Causes of spark discharges can be located and repaired

45. Cautions Regarding Radio Noise Radio noise from corona should not be confused with radio noise generated by spark discharge Radio noise from corona should not be confused with radio noise generated by spark discharge High frequency complaints are almost always due to sparks High frequency complaints are almost always due to sparks Causes of spark discharges can be located and repaired Causes of spark discharges can be located and repaired Corona is a DESIGN ISSUE Corona is a DESIGN ISSUE

46. Cautions Regarding Radio Noise Radio noise caused by corona cannot be reduced by changing the line configuration near where the noise problem is occuring. The source of the problem can be several miles away Radio noise caused by corona cannot be reduced by changing the line configuration near where the noise problem is occuring. The source of the problem can be several miles away

47. Audible Noise Can get broadband noise and hum Load can affect audible noise For measurement see: ANSI/IEEE Standard 656-1992 – IEEE Standard For Measurement of Audible Noise from Overhead Transmission Lines

48. Audible Noise May be present as 120 Hz Hum or broadband noise May be present as 120 Hz Hum or broadband noise Can be affected by load Can be affected by load

49. Audible Noise

50. May be present as 120 Hz Hum or broadband noise May be present as 120 Hz Hum or broadband noise

51. Audible Noise May be present as 120 Hz Hum or broadband noise May be present as 120 Hz Hum or broadband noise Can be affected by load Can be affected by load

52. Audible Noise in Context 50 55 60 65 Audible Noise dBA 30 meters from centerline Numerous complaints Moderate complaints No complaints Source: BPA study Common design limit – 53 dBA

53. EPA Regulations EffectLevelArea Outdoor activity Indoor activity L dn < 55 dBA Residential areas and farms where.. quiet is a basis for use L eq(24) < 55 dBA Areas where people spend limited time L dn < 45 dBA L eq(24) < 45 dBA Residential Other L dn (has a -10 dB adder nightime) L eq(24) (24 hour average)

54. x y Tradeoff: Magnetic Field vs. Audible Noise Effect of Changing Conductor Phasing A B C A or C B C or A White – ABC – ABC Super Bundle Red – ABC – CBA Low Reactance 500 kV Double Circuit Line

55. ABC – ABC Super Bundle ABC – CBA Low Reactance Magnetic Field is Reduced

56. ABC – CBA (Low Reactance) ABC – ABC (Super Bundle) Audible Noise is Increased

57. Corona Loss What is it? Whenever corona occurs on a transmission line, there is a corresponding loss of energy called corona loss. This loss is one of the reasons why the transmission of electric energy between two points is not perfect. When can it be a problem? Generally, corona loss is significantly less than resistive loss. However, at higher voltages, high altitudes and during foul weather, corona loss can actually exceed resistive loss.

58. A Word On Corona Losses

59. Whenever corona occurs on a transmission line, there is a corresponding loss of energy called corona loss. This loss is one of the reasons why the transmission of electric energy between two points is not perfect

60. A Word On Corona Losses Whenever corona occurs on a transmission line, there is a corresponding loss of energy called corona loss. This loss is one of the reasons why the transmission of electric energy between two points is not perfect Generally, corona loss is significantly less than resistive loss. However, at higher voltages, high altitudes and during foul weather, corona loss can actually exceed resistive loss

61. Example Losses (sea level) Line Voltage (kV) Bundle n x 2a Load MVA I 2 R Loss kW/km Corona Loss (kW/km) AverageMaximum 362 550 800 2 x 3.16 3 x 3.3 4 x 3.3 400 900 2000 41 52 93 2 4 8 26 78 208

62. Corona On Hardware Transmission line hardware is usually tested in the laboratory prior to being selected to determine whether is corona free. This test is often done on a single phase system in order to conserve laboratory space. It has been found that the traditional method of energizing the system to 110% of the rated line to ground voltage is not sufficient, especially for lines of more compact design. Apparently, the hardware is exposed to higher gradients in the field than those to which the hardware was tested.

63. Corona On Hardware

64. Transmission line hardware is usually tested in the laboratory prior to being selected to determine whether is corona free. This test is often done on a single phase system in order to conserve laboratory space

65. Corona On Hardware Transmission line hardware is usually tested in the laboratory prior to being selected to determine whether is corona free. This test is often done on a single phase system in order to conserve laboratory space It has been found that the traditional method of energizing the system to 110% of the rated line to ground voltage is not sufficient, especially for lines of more compact design. Apparently, the hardware is exposed to higher gradients in the field than those to which the hardware was tested