1. Chapter 10:
Intelligence

2. Intelligence
Do we have an inborn general mental capacity (intelligence)? If so, can we quantify this capacity as a meaningful number?

3. What is Intelligence?
Intelligence (in all cultures) is the ability to:
1.learn from experience
2. solve problems
3. use our knowledge to adapt to new situations.
In research studies, intelligence is whatever the intelligence test measures. This tends to be “school smarts.”
Preview Question 1: What argues for and against considering intelligence as one general mental ability?

4. Intelligence: Ability or Abilities?
Have you ever thought that since people’s mental abilities are so diverse, it may not be justifiable to label those abilities with only one word, intelligence?

5. Intelligence: Ability or Abilities?
Is intelligence a single ability that manifests itself in multiple ways? Some people have more of it and those people are better at what they decide to do.
- If so all tests of ability for a single person should correlate positively with each other.
- Some people seem to be good at everything, others struggle with every thing.
- In School: Many students seem to stay close to their average regardless of the subject (Are you usually a B student? a C student?) OR

6. Intelligence: Ability or Abilities?
Are there multiple intelligences that are independent of one another, such that people who are artistically gifted may not be verbally gifted?
- A person may have a gift for music or art but struggle with math or history.
- Savant Syndrome (We’ll come back to this momentarily)
- If so, does everyone necessarily have to have a strength?

7. Three Theories of Intelligence
1. Charles Spearman: General Intelligence
Contemporary Intelligence Theories
2. Howard Gardner: Multiple Intelligences (8)
3. Robert Sternberg: Multiple Intelligences (3)

8. General Intelligence- Spearman
The idea that general intelligence (g) exists comes from the work of Charles Spearman ( ) who helped develop the factor analysis approach in statistics.
He felt everyone had one!
Athleticism, like intelligence, is many things!

9. General Intelligence
Spearman proposed that general intelligence (g) is linked to many clusters that can be analyzed by factor analysis (empirically assessed).
Supported by Specific abilities (s)
Math, reading, writing, etc.
For example, people who do well on vocabulary examinations do well on paragraph comprehension examinations, a cluster that helps define verbal intelligence. Other factors include a spatial ability factor, or a reasoning ability factor.

10. Contemporary Intelligence Theories
Howard Gardner (1983, 1999) supports the idea that intelligence comes in multiple forms. Gardner notes that brain damage may diminish one type of ability but not others.

11. Savants
People with savant syndrome excel in abilities unrelated to general intelligence or have limited mental capacity.
4 or 5 are males
Rainman

12. Howard Gardner
Gardner proposes eight types of intelligences and speculates about a ninth one — existential intelligence. Existential intelligence is the ability to think about the question of life, death and existence.

14. Robert Sternberg
Sternberg (1985, 1999, 2003) also agrees with Gardner, but suggests three intelligences rather than eight.
Triarchic Theory:
Analytical Intelligence: Intelligence that is assessed by intelligence tests.
Creative Intelligence: Intelligence that makes us adapt to novel situations, generating novel ideas.
Practical Intelligence: Intelligence that is required for everyday tasks (e.g. street smarts).
Preview Question 2: How do Gardner’s and Sternberg’s theories of multiple intelligences differ?

15. Intelligence and Creativity
Creativity: is the ability to produce ideas that are both novel and valuable.
Creative people tend to be divergent thinkers.
Convergent thinking - thinking that involves following a series of logical steps with the goal of arriving at the “correct” answer.
Divergent thinking – thinking used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions; spontaneous, unorganized thought.
Preview Question 3: What is creativity, and what fosters it?
Creative people generate new, unexpected ideas first through divergent thought. Ideas are then organized using convergent thought.

16. Intelligence and Creativity
It correlates somewhat with intelligence.
a high IQ alone does not guarantee creativity.
personality traits that promote divergent thinking are more important.
Sternberg identified five components of divergent thinkers and creativity…
Preview Question 3: What is creativity, and what fosters it?

17. Imaginative Thinking: The ability to see things in novel ways.
Expertise: A well-developed knowledge base.
Creative Environment: A creative and supportive environment allows creativity to bloom.
creativity
Venturesome Personality: A personality that seeks new experiences with perseverance.
Intrinsic Motivation: A motivation to be creative from within.

18. Emotional Intelligence
Social intelligence is the know-how involved in comprehending social situations and managing oneself successfully
Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive, understand, and use emotions (Salovey and others, 2005). The test of emotional intelligence measures overall emotional intelligence and its four components.
Preview Question 4: What makes up emotional intelligence?

19. Emotional Intelligence: Components
Description
Perceive emotion
Recognize emotions in faces, music and stories
Understand emotion
Predict emotions, how they change and blend
Manage emotion
Express emotions in different situations
Use emotion
Utilize emotions to adapt or be creative

20. Emotional Intelligence: Criticism
Gardner and others criticize the idea of emotional intelligence and question whether we stretch this idea of intelligence too far when we apply it to our emotions.
Preview Question 5: To what extent is intelligence related to brain anatomy and neural processing speed?

21. Assessing Intelligence
Psychologists define intelligence testing as a method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with others using numerical scores.
Preview Question 6: When and why were intelligence tests created?

22. Alfred Binet
Alfred Binet and his colleague Théodore Simon practiced a more modern form of intelligence testing by developing questions that would predict children’s future progress in the Paris school system.
Why he did it:
To identify students who needed special help in coping with the school curriculum.

23. Lewis Terman
In the US, Lewis Terman adapted Binet’s test for American school children and named the test the Stanford-Binet Test. The following is the formula of Intelligence Quotient (IQ), introduced by William Stern:

24. Lewis Terman What he did:
In the US, Terman adapted Binet’s test for American school children and named the test the Stanford-Binet Test IQ Test.
Why he did it:
Terman believed in eugenics
new Standford-Binet scale was no longer used solely for advocating education for all children, as was Binet's objective. A new objective of intelligence testing was illustrated in the Stanford-Binet manual with testing ultimately resulting in "curtailing the reproduction of feeble-mindedness and in the elimination of an enormous amount of crime, pauperism, and industrial inefficiency (p.7)" Terman, L., Lyman, G., Ordahl, G., Ordahl, L., Galbreath, N., & Talbert, W. (1916). The Stanford Revision and Extension of the Binet-Simon Scale for Measuring Intelligence. Baltimore: Warwick & York.(White, 2000).
Terman's initial studies were even more troublesome. He administered English tests to Spanish-speakers and unschooled African-Americans, concluding:
“High-grade or border-line deficiency… is very, very common among Spanish-Indian and Mexican families of the Southwest and also among negroes. Their dullness seems to be racial, or at least inherent in the family stocks from which they come… Children of this group should be segregated into separate classes… They cannot master abstractions but they can often be made into efficient workers… from a eugenic point of view they constitute a grave problem because of their unusually breeding” (The Measurement of Intelligence, 1916, p ).
Terman's biased tests gave "scientific" proof that, for many Whites, justified racial discrimination, segregation, and eugenics.
Lewis Madison Terman (15 January 1877 in Johnson County, Indiana – 21 December 1956 in Palo Alto, California) was an American psychologist, noted as a pioneer in educational psychology in the early 20th century at Stanford University. He is best known as the inventor of the Stanford-Binet IQ test. He was a prominent eugenicist and was a member of the Human Betterment Foundation. He was also served as president of the American Psychological Association.
The Human Betterment Foundation (HBF) was an American eugenics organization established in Pasadena, California in 1928 by E.S. Gosney with the aim "to foster and aid constructive and educational forces for the protection and betterment of the human family in body, mind, character, and citizenship". It primarily served to compile and distribute information about compulsory sterilization legislation in the United States, for the purposes of eugenics
Eugenics: a social movement aimed at improving the human species through selective breeding…promoted higher reproduction rates of people with ‘superior’ traits, and aimed to reduce reproduction rates of people with ‘inferior’ traits.

25. *Addressed language and age
David Wechsler
Wechsler developed the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and later the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), an intelligence test for school-aged children.
*Addressed language and age

26. WAIS
WAIS measures overall intelligence and 11 other aspects related to intelligence that are designed to assess clinical and educational problems.
Separates scores for verbal comprehension, perceptual organization, working memory, and processing speed

27. Modern Tests
Achievement Tests- assess what a person has learned; reflects
Aptitude Tests- designed to predict a person’s future performance
Aptitude- capacity to learn
Achievement tests assess current performance and aptitude tests predict future performance

28. Principles of Test Construction
For a psychological test to be acceptable it must fulfill the following three criteria:
Standardization
Reliability
Validity
Preview Question 7: What’s the difference between aptitude and achievement tests, and how can we develop and evaluate them?

29. Standardization
Standardizing a test involves administering the test to a representative sample of future test takers in order to establish a basis for meaningful comparison.

30. Normal Curve
Standardized tests establish a normal distribution of scores on a tested population in a bell-shaped pattern called the normal curve.

31. (James )Flynn Effect
In the past 60 years, intelligence scores have risen steadily by an average of 27 points. This phenomenon is known as the Flynn effect.

32. Reliability
A test is reliable when it yields consistent results. To establish reliability researchers establish different procedures:
Split-half Reliability: Dividing the test into two equal halves and assessing how consistent the scores are.
Test-Retest Reliability: Using the same test on two occasions to measure consistency.
Preview Question 8: How stable are intelligence scores over the life span?

33. Validity
Reliability of a test does not ensure validity. Validity of a test refers to what the test is supposed to measure or predict.
Content Validity: Refers to the extent a test measures a particular behavior or trait.
Predictive Validity: Refers to the function of a test in predicting a particular behavior or trait.
Predictive power diminishes as students get older; narrower the range
SAT less than +.5

34. Extremes of Intelligence
A valid intelligence test divides two groups of people into two extremes: the mentally retarded (IQ 70) and individuals with high intelligence (IQ 135). These two groups are significantly different.
Preview Question 9: What are the traits of those at the low and high intelligence extremes?

35. High Intelligence
Contrary to popular belief, people with high intelligence test scores tend to be healthy, well adjusted, and unusually successful academically.
May appear to be more isolated, introverted, or appear in their own worlds

36. Mental Retardation
Mentally retarded (intellectual disability) individuals required constant supervision a few decades ago, but with a supportive family environment and special or mainstreamed education they can now care for themselves.
Down Syndrome

37. Genetic Influences Identical Twin Studies- similar test scores
Similar gray matter- neural cell bodies
Polygenetic – many genes appear to be inviolved

38. Adoption Studies
Adopted children show a marginal correlation in verbal ability to their adopted parents.
Genetic influences- not environmental ones- become more apparent as we accumulate life experiences

39. Our genes shape the experiences that shape us.
Heritability
The variation in intelligence test scores attributable to genetics. We credit heredity with 50% of the variation in intelligence.
It pertains only to why people differ from one another, not to the individual.
Our genes shape the experiences that shape us.

40. Environmental Influences
Studies of twins and adopted children also show the following:
Fraternal twins raised together tend to show similarity in intelligence scores.
Identical twins raised apart show slightly less similarity in their intelligence scores.

41. Early Intervention Effects
Early neglect from caregivers leads children to develop a lack of personal control over the environment, and it impoverishes their intelligence.
J. McVicker Hunt found Romanian orphans with minimal
human interaction were delayed in their development. He implemented tutored human enrichment.

42. Schooling Effects
Schooling is an experience that pays dividends, which is reflected in intelligence scores. Increased schooling correlates with higher intelligence scores.
To increase readiness for schoolwork,
projects like Head Start facilitate leaning.

43. Group Differences in Intelligence Test Scores
Why do groups differ in intelligence? How can we make sense of these differences?
Preview Question 11: How and why do gender and racial groups differ in mental ability scores?

44. Gender Similarities and Differences
There are seven ways in which males and females differ in various abilities.
1. Girls are better spellers
2. Girls are verbally fluent and have large vocabularies
3. Girls are better at locating objects
4. Girls are more sensitive to touch, taste, and color
5. Boys outnumber girls in counts of underachievement
6. Boys outperform girls at math problem solving, but under perform at math computation
7. Women detect emotions more easily than men do

45. Ethnic Similarities and Differences
To discuss this issue we begin with two disturbing but agreed upon facts:
Racial groups differ in their average intelligence scores.
High-scoring people (and groups) are more likely to attain high levels of education and income.

46. Racial (Group) Differences
If we look at racial differences, white Americans score higher in average intelligence than black Americans (Avery and others, 1994). European New Zealanders score higher than native New Zealanders (Braden, 1994).
White-Americans
Black-Americans
Average IQ = 100
Average IQ = 85
Hispanic Americans

47. Environmental Effects
Differences in intelligence among these groups are largely environmental, as if one environment is more fertile in developing these abilities than the other.

48. Reasons Why Environment Affects Intelligence
Races are remarkably alike genetically.
Race is a social category.
Asian students outperform North American students on math achievement and aptitude tests.
Today’s better prepared populations would outperform populations of the 1930s on intelligence tests.
White and black infants tend to score equally well on tests predicting future intelligence.
Different ethnic groups have experienced periods of remarkable achievement in different eras.

49. The Question of Bias
Aptitude tests are necessarily biased in the sense that they are sensitive to performance differences caused by cultural differences.
However, aptitude tests are not biased in the sense that they accurately predict performance of one group over the other.
Preview Question 12: Are intelligence tests inappropriately biased?

50. Test-Takers’ Expectations
A stereotype threat is a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.
This phenomenon appears in some instances in intelligence testing among African-Americans and among women of all colors.