2. The Human Brain Contains 10,000 different types of neurons Contains 100 billion neurons Each neuron communicates with 5,000-200,000 other neurons to make one trillion neuronal connections

3. BRAIN STRUCTURE The brain can be divided into three major regions: Hindbrain – includes the cerebellum and two structures found in the lower part of the brainstem: the medulla and the pons Midbrain – is the segment of the brainstem that lies between the hindbrain and the forebrain Forebrain – is the largest and most complex region of the brain, encompassing a variety of structures, including the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system and cerebrum

4. HINDBRAIN Brainstem – the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull - responsible for automatic survival functions Medulla - base of the brainstem – controls unconscious but vital functions such as circulating blood, breathing, maintaining muscle tone, and regulating reflexes

5. HINDBRAIN Pons – a bridge of fibers that connects the brainstem with the cerebellum – it also contains several clusters of cell bodies involved with sleep and arousal. Cerebellum – (little brain) – critical to the coordination of movement and to the sense of equilibrium or physical balance. There is some evidence that it plays a role in emotional development and modulates sensations of anger and pleasure.

7. MIDBRAIN Contains an area that is concerned with integrating sensory processes, such as vision and hearing An important system of dopamine- releasing neurons that projects into various higher brain centers originates here

8. CORPUS CALLOSUM

10. Limbic System  Is the center for our emotions  Responsible for emotion production and storing of emotional memory  Controls appetite and sleep patterns  Plays an important part in motivation

11. Limbic System Olfactory cortex is responsible for the sense of smell Amygdala is responsible for our feelings of fear Hippocampus is responsible for declarative memory (things we know, like facts and figures, names)

12. The Diencephalon Consists of the thalamus and hypothalamus Thalamus: has a role in emotion and memory The thalamus is an interpretation center for pain, temperature, light touch and pressure. Hypothalamus’: main function is homeostasis, or maintaining the body’s equilibrium.

13. THALAMUS Thalamus – the structure in the forebrain through which all sensory information (except smell) must pass to get to the cerebral cortex The thalamus also appears to play an active role in integrating information from various senses

14. HYPOTHALAMUS  Hypothalamus  neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; directs several maintenance activities  eating  drinking  body temperature  helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland  is linked to emotion

15. The Four Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex

16. The Cerebral Cortex Your cerebral cortex is an intricate covering of interconnected neural cells that, like bark on a tree, forms a thin surface layer on your cerebral hemispheres. It is your body’s information processing center.

18. Lobes of the Brain

19. Frontal Lobe Responsible for: reasoningsome aspects of speech planningorganization movementproblem solving attentioncreative thought personalityimpulse control emotionsphysical reaction memorylibido (sexual urges)

20. Occipital Lobe  Helps see light and objects  Allows us to recognize and identify things  Aids color recognition  Occipital lobe on the right interprets visual signals from the left visual space  Damage to one occipital lobe will result in loss of vision in the opposite visual field

21. Parietal Lobe  Concerned with cognition (thinking)  Information processing  Pain and touch sensation  Spatial orientation  Speech  Language and visual perception  Receives sensory information from other areas of the brain  Uses memory to attach meaning to objects

22. Temporal Lobe  Assists us to tell one smell from another and one sound from another  Has a role in auditory and visual memory  The right temporal lobe is involved in visual memory (for pictures and faces)  The left temporal lobe is involved with verbal memory (words and names)

23. Brain Damage Damage to occipital lobe may result in cortical blindness. Parietal Lobe damage can result in disorders of perception such as: – Apraxia – inability to identify objects – Hemisomatognosia – unawareness of the opposite side of the body to the damage – Phantom limb – sensations still present from an amputated limb

24. Brain Damage Damage to the Temporal Lobe such as Wernicke’s Aphasia – People with this disorder loss their ability to understand language – They may be able to speak clearly, but the words make no sense – “word salad” – However, people with Wenicke’s aphasia are able to comprehend non-verbal sounds and respond appropriately

25. Absolute Threshold In neuroscience and psychophysics, an absolute threshold is the smallest detectable level of a stimulus. The absolute threshold can be influenced by several different factors such as the subject's motivations and expectations, cognitive processes, and whether the subject is adapted to the stimulus

26. Vision The absolute threshold for vision was assessed in a landmark experiment by Hecht, Shlaer and Pirenne in 1942. Vision The amount of light present if someone held up a single candle 30 mi (48 km) away from us, if our eyes were used to the dark. If a person in front of you held up a candle and began backing up at the rate of one foot (30 cm) per second, that person would have to back up for 44 hours before the flame became invisible.

27. Hearing The absolute threshold of hearing is the minimum sound level of a pure tone that an average ear with normal hearing can hear with no other sound present. The absolute threshold relates to the sound that can just be heard by the organism. Hearing The ticking of a watch in a quiet environment at 20 ft (6 m).

28. Sense of Taste The absolute threshold for taste would be the minimum amount of the flavor that can be detected. For example: sweet, sour, and bitterness. Some people have more sensitivity to various flavors and this determines in some cases their likes and dislikes of certain foods.

29. Taste Factors that influence taste: Temperature Description or presentation Smell Five Basic Sensations of Taste Sweet Sour Salty Bitter Umami

30. Sense of Touch One test that has been done with the absolute threshold for touch is to allow very small items to fall on a person’s cheek. For most the lowest sense of touch that was observed was a bee’s wing dropped from the height of ½ inch. This value will vary considerably depending on the part of the body involved.

31. Sense of Smell Absolute threshold studies using sense of smell usually involve a scent, such as perfume per the size of the room. The smallest detectable scent is usually one drop of perfume for a six room apartment.

32. Broca’s Area This area of the brain controls language expression- an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements in speech.

33. Wernicke’s Area This area controls language reception. A brain area involved in language comprehension and expression, usually in the left temporal lobe.

34. How We Use Language When you read aloud the words: 1.Register the visual area. 2.Are relayed to the angular gyrus, which tranforms the words into auditory code. 3.It is received and understood in Wernicke’s area. 4.Sent to Broca’s area 5.Motor cortex produces the sound.

35. Aphasia Aphasia is impairment of language, usually caused by damage to the left hemisphere, either to Broca’s area or to Wernicke’s area.

37. The nervous system is an organ system containing a network of specialized cells called neurons that coordinate the actions of an animal and transmit signals between different parts of its body. In most animals the nervous system consists of two parts, central and peripheral.

38. The central nervous system of vertebrates (such as humans) contains the brain, spinal cord, and retina. The peripheral nervous system consists of sensory neurons, clusters of neurons called ganglia, and nerves connecting them to each other and to the central nervous system. These regions are all interconnected by means of complex neural pathways.

39. Nervous Systems Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – is made up of all those nerves that lie outside the brain and spinal cord Nerves – bundles of neuron fibers that are routed together in the PNS Somatic Nervous system (SNS) – is made up of nerves that connect to voluntary skeletal muscles and to sensory receptors.

40. Autonomic Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) – is made up of nerves that connect to the heart, blood vessels, smooth muscles, and glands Sympathetic Division – is the branch of the ANS that mobilizes the body’s resources for emergencies. Parasympathetic Division – is the branch of the ANS that generally conserves bodily resources.

41. Neurons Neurons send signals to other cells as electrochemical waves travelling along thin fibers called axons, which cause chemicals called neurotransmitters to be released at junctions called synapses. A cell that receives a synaptic signal may be excited, inhibited, or otherwise modulated.

42. Motor neurons, situated either in the central nervous system or in peripheral ganglia, connect the nervous system to muscles or other effector organs.

43. The interactions of all these types of neurons form neural circuits that generate an organism's perception of the world and determine its behavior.

44. Mirror Neurons A mirror neuron is a neuron that fires both when an animal acts and when the animal observes the same action performed by another. Thus, the neuron "mirrors" the behavior of the other, as though the observer were itself acting. It is argued that mirror neurons may be important for understanding the actions of other people, and for learning new skills by imitation.

46. How the Nervous System and Endrocrine Systems Interact Hormones provide feedback to the brain to affect neural processing. Reproductive hormones affect the development of the nervous system. The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland and other endocrine glands.

47. The endocrine system is the system of glands, each of which secretes different types of hormone directly into the bloodstream (some of which are transported along nerve tracts to regulate the body Endocrine glands are glands of the endocrine system that secrete their products, hormones, directly into the blood rather than through a duct.

48. Principal functions of the endocrine system Maintenance of the internal environment in the body (maintaining the optimum biochemical environment) Integration and regulation of growth and development Control, maintenance and instigation of sexual reproduction, including fertilization, fetal growth and development and nourishment of the newborn

49. Endocrine System

50. Hormones Like neurotransmitters, they activate cells in the body. They affect both internal processes and visible behavior. Are secreted directly into the bloodstream or lymph system.

51. Behavioral Endocrinology The study of the relationship between hormones and behavior Hormones affect behavior and behavior feeds back to affect hormones Hormones ↔ Behavior

52. Hormones DO NOT act like “faucets” in which behavior spews forth if the hormone spigot is open. Hormone-behavior relationships are complex. It is NOT appropriate to say that hormones “cause” behavior. Rather, hormones change the probability that a particular behavior will be displayed in the appropriate social context – hormones simply influence behavior. Hormonesand Behavior

53. First endocrinology experiment

54. Berthold’s Experiment 1)Background: Naturalistic observations of changes in behavior and appearance of roosters with age and season. 2)Castrated 6 roosters. 3)Re-implanted a testis in 2 roosters. 4)Transplanted a testis from another bird in 2 roosters. 5)Left 2 castrated roosters to develop into capons.

55. The Pituitary Gland A sort of master gland It is a cherry-sized endocrine gland The hormones it secretes affect the growth and secretion of other endocrine glands The real boss is the hypothalamus

56. ADRENAL GLANDS The adrenal glands are the part of the body responsible for releasing three different classes of hormones. These hormones control many important functions in the body, such as: Maintaining metabolic processes, such as managing blood sugar levels and regulating inflammation Regulating the balance of salt and water Controlling the "fight or flight" response to stress Maintaining pregnancy Initiating and controlling sexual maturation during childhood and puberty

57. Fight or Flight Response

58. Psychological Correlates of Physiological processes Fight or Flight Response – believed to have evolved to help our ancestors prepare for sudden physical threats It prepares our bodies to either confront a threat or run away from it

59. Fight or Flight Behavior In the human fight or flight response in prehistoric times, fight was manifested in aggressive, combative behavior and flight was manifested by fleeing potentially threatening situations, such as being confronted by a predator. In current times, these responses persist, but fight and flight responses have assumed a wider range of behaviors. For example, the fight response may be manifested in angry, argumentative behavior, and the flight response may be manifested through social withdrawal, substance abuse, and even television viewing

60. Fight or Flight More alert as circulatory system diverts blood (full of oxygen) away from stomach and intestines towards the brain and skeletal muscles The liver releases sugar to make more energy available The body releases adrenaline which makes the heart beat faster and stronger

61. Epinephrine and Cortisol Also known as adrenalin, epinephrine is a naturally occurring hormone. During the fight-or-flight response response, the adrenal gland releases epinephrine into the blood stream, along with other hormones like cortisol, -signaling the heart to pump harder, -increasing blood pressure, -opening airways in the lungs, -narrowing blood vessels in the skin and intestine to increase blood flow to major muscle groups

62. Fight or Flight Bronchioles in the lungs dilate to bring in more oxygen Pupils of the eyes dilate to make vision sharper Mouths become dry as we produce less saliva We perspire more as a means of cooling off body as the increased arousal produces more heat in the body

63. Men versus Women Males and females tend to deal with stressful situations differently. Males are more likely to respond to an emergency situation with aggression (fight), while females are more likely to flee (flight), turn to others for help, or attempt to defuse the situation. During stressful times, a mother is especially likely to show protective responses toward her offspring and affiliate with others for shared social responses to threat.