Introduction to Programming Logic and Technique

Introduction to Programming Logic and Technique
LECTURE Introduction to Programming Logic and Technique DTNhung – NIIT HAIPHONG

Start-up Can you list a serial generation language programming?
The vocabulary of commonly spoken communication is ________ the vocabulary of a programming language? a. Greater than b. Less than c. Equal to What programming language do you like?

Solutions Generations of programming languages
1st generation is machine language. 2nd generation is assembly language. 3rd generation is high-level languages such as BASIC, Pascal, C… a. Greater than Suggestions: Assembly, Pascal, C, C++, Visual Basic, Visual C++, Java, Delphi, ASP, JSP, Pearl…

Introduction to Programming Logic and Technique
Chapter 1 Introducing to Programming Concept Chapter 2 Representing the logic of Programming using Pseudocodes. Chapter 3 Representing the logic of Programming using Flowcharts Chapter 4 Understanding Iterations and Implementing Modular Programming

Introducing to Programming Concept
Computer follows an I-P-O cycle. It needs set of instructions called program to specify the input required, process to be followed, and the output required. Program is written in a specific language called Programming language, so that computer can understand the instructions. Process Input Output Feedback

Introducing to Programming Concepts
A set of instructions to perform a particular job is called a program. Therefore, for each job that you want the computer to perform, you require a separate program. Instructions in a program can be: Sequential: Instructions that are executed one after the other. Decision Making: Instructions that evaluate an expression (relation or condition) first and then, depending upon whether the value of the expression is 'true' (non-zero) or 'false' (zero), it transfers the control to a particular statement. Iterative: Instructions that are executed repeatedly, depending on the value of an expression (relation or condition)

Programming Languages
MACHINE LANGUAGE A sequence of 0s and 1s can be used to describe any physical operation that the computer performs. Therefore, a computer system uses a number system that consists of only two digits, 0 and 1. This number system is known as the binary number system. The language that the computer understands is called the machine language. It is doubtful if you would be comfortable writing a program in machine language. It is certainly difficult for anybody to remember instructions in the form of 0s and 1s. Command Machine code ADD SUBTRACT MULTIPLY DIVIDE READ FROM KEYBOARD WRITE ON SCREEN WRITE ON PRINTER

Machine language The binary number system uses the base of 2. For example, 101 in the binary system is equal to 5 in the decimal system. The conversion can be done as: 101=1*22 + 0*21+ 1* 20 =1*4 + 0*2 + 1*1 = =5 No need translater (compiler)

Assembly language 100 0 00 11 11 000 0 0 1 00 0 111 LD Ax, 9 LD Bx, 10
ADD Ax,Bx LD (100),Ax JMP Bx HLT In the above program: The line number one loads register Ax with the value, 9. The line number two loads register Bx with the value, 10. The line number three adds the value of register Bx to the value of register Ax. The line number four stores the value of register Ax in the main memory location, 100. The line number five uses JMP to jump to register Bx to transfer the control to register Bx. The line number six stops the program execution. Assembler

High level language A high-level programming language consists of a set of instructions, which are represented using simple English words. So, when you want the computer to display the output on the screen, you type the instruction ‘WRITE ON SCREEN’ and not ‘ ’. There are many high-level programming languages available, such as C, C++, and Java. Each language has its own advantages. Programming languages also have a vocabulary, which is referred to as the set of keywords of that language, and a grammar, which is referred to as the syntax.

High level language As stated earlier, a program written in any programming language is a set of logically related instructions. These instructions have two parts, as shown in the following figure: The two parts of a programming language instruction are: Operation code (opcode): This part instructs a computer about the operation to be performed. Operand: This part instructs the computer about the location of the data on which the operation specified by the opcode is to be performed. For example, in the instruction Add A and B, Add is the opcode and A and B are operands Operation code (Opcode) Operand (Address)

High level language begin numeric nNumber1, nNumber2, nNumber3
display nNumber3 end

Algorithm An algorithm is a sequence of steps required to solve a problem An algorithm follows the I-P-O cycle to solve the problem. The two levels of algorithm are: Macro-level: An algorithm that contains brief steps about a process is called a macro-level algorithm. Micro-level: An algorithm that contains detailed steps about a process is called a micro-level algorithm. An algorithm is represented using tools such as: Pseudocode Flowcharts

Algorithm An algorithm has the following five characteristics:
An algorithm ends after a fixed number of steps. Each step in an algorithm clearly specifies the action to be performed. The steps in an algorithm specify basic operations. These operations could include calculations, input/output operations, and comparisons. An algorithm accepts input data, in a defined format, before it can be processed. An algorithm generates one or more outputs after the input is processed. The resultant information termed as output can be displayed or stored for future reference.

Pseudocode Vocabulary Operator
Declare (variables, literals, procedures, functions…): khai báo Assign: gán giá trị Function: hàm Procedure: thủ tục Flowchart: lược đồ thuật toán Pseudocode /sj:udoucode/: mã giả Variable: biến Constant/literal: hằng Expression: biểu thức Operator Arithmetic: toán tử toán học Relational: toán tử quan hệ Logical: toán tử logic Operand: toán hạng Precedence: mức ưu tiên Comment: chú thích Dry run table: chạy thô

Algorithm - Pseudocode
Begin numeric nNum1, nResult numeric nCons = 10 Display ‘Enter the first number’ Accept nNum1 nResult = (nNum1 * nCons) / 73 If nResult > nCons Display “ the number is greater than 10’ else Display “ The number is less than 10’ Display nResult End

Pseudocode Advantages of pseudocode are:
It is easier and faster to write as it uses English like statements . It does not need to be rewritten if any changes are made because each step is independent and may be modified without altering the other steps. It can be converted to a program using any programming language. Disadvantages of pseudocode are: Pseudocode does not provide a graphical representation of an algorithm. Pseudocode depicting too many nested conditions may be difficult to understand.

Vocabulary - Pseudocode
Declare (variables, literals, procedures, functions…): khai báo Assign (values to variables): gán Operator Arithmetic: toán tử toán học Relational: toán tử quan hệ Logical: toán tử logic Operand: toán hạng Operator precedence: toán tử ưu tiên Comment: chú thích Dry run table: chạy thô

Pseudocode Begin numeric nNum1, nResult // Declare variables
numeric nCons = 10// Direct assignment, initialize first value Display ‘Enter the first number’ Accept nNum1 //Accept statement nResult = (nNum1 * nCons) / 73 If nResult > nCons Display “ the number is greater than 10’ else Display “ The number is less than 10’ Display nResult End ================================== Variable: nNum1, nResult Constant: nCons Expression: nResult =(nNum1*nCons)/73 //: Comment Char, numeric: tupe of data

Flowchart A flowchart is a graphical representation of the steps to be ollowed for solving a problem. It consists of a set of symbols. Each symbol represents a specific activity.

Flowchart Advantages of Flowcharts are:
Flowcharts are a better method of communicating logic. The flowcharts help in analyzing the problems effectively . The flowcharts act as a guide during the program development phase. It is easier to debug errors in logic using a flowchart. The flowcharts help in maintaining the programs. Disadvantages of Flowcharts are: A lengthy flowchart may extend over multiple pages, which reduces readability. As flowcharts symbols cannot be typed, drawing a flowchart using any graphic tool is a time consuming process. The changes made to a single step may cause redrawing the entire flowchart. A flowchart representing a complex algorithm may have too many flow lines. This reduces readability, and it is time-consuming to draw and understand the logic Readability.

Pseudocode

Keywords in Pseudocode

Keyword in Pseudocode begin … end: These keywords are used to start and finish pseudocode. Begin is the first line and end is the last line of pseudocode. accept: This keyword is used to obtain an input from a user. display: This keyword is used to present a result or an output. if … else… endif: These keywords are used in decision-making. //: Comment Do … while, for …, repeat … until: Represent loop

Using Pseudocodes to Represent Sequential Code
The pseudocode for adding two numbers is as follows: // starting the pseudocode begin // input consists of accepting two numbers accept first_number, second_number // process of adding the two numbers compute sum as first_number + second_number // output for displaying the sum display ‘The sum of given two numbers is’ sum // ending the pseudocode end

Variables and Constants
The internal memory consists of different locations in which data is stored. A computer needs to identify the memory locations to be able to retrieve values from or store values in them. A variable refers to the memory location whose value changes during the program execution. A constant refers to the memory location whose value does not change during the program execution.

Variables and Constant
You need to declare a variable before using it in a program. The declaration of a variable assigns a name to the variable and specifies the type of data the variable can store. Naming conventions: The first letter of the variable name might indicate the data type of the variable: cName and nAge The variable name should clearly describe the purpose of a variable: nScore The variable name should not contain an embedded space or symbols such as # $ % ^ & * ( ) { } [ ] . , : ; “ ‘ / and \. You can use an underscore when a space is required in a variable name, for example, nBasic_Salary. If a variable name consists of multiple words without spaces in between, capitalize the first letter of each word for readability. Some examples are nTotalScore and nSumOfSquares.

Data Types Numeric: Character:
Numeric variables can contain only numbers. These variables can be used in arithmetic operations . Character: Character variables can contain any combination of letters, numbers, and special characters. These variables cannot be used for calculation. Let us look to the code of accepting two numbers and displaying the sum with the data type declarations. begin numeric nNum1, nNum2, nSum //declaring variables accept nNum1 accept nNum2 nSum = nNum1 + nNum2 display nSum end

Assign values The variables can be assigned values in the following two methods: Direct assignment Accept Statement In the direct assignment method, values can be assigned to variables using the equal to (=) sign, as shown in the following syntax: variable_name=value Examples: numeric nHeight, nAge, nCounter character cCode nHeight = 172 nAge = 35 nCounter = 0 cCode = “XYZ”

Assign values Values can be assigned to variables using the accept statement, as shown in the following syntax. accept variable_name Examples: character cName numeric nAge display “Enter your name” accept cName display “Enter your age” accept nAge

Identify the variable and constant data in the following situation. Each day, the courier service delivers some letters. The number of letters is different each day. Regardless of the number of letters delivered by the courier service, they are paid a carrying charge of $5. Variable: Constant:

Operators Arithmetic: +, -, *, /, %
Relational: >, <. >=, <=, =, != Logical: AND, OR, NOT Bảng chân trị (chân lý) X Y AND(X,Y) OR (X,Y) NOT(X) 1

Problem 1 Create the pseudocode to accept item name, price, and quantity. You need to calculate value as the product of price and quantity, and display the calculated value and the item name using variables. Answer: begin accept cItem_name, nPrice, nQuantity, nSale_value nSale_value = nPrice * nQuantity display cItem_name display nSale_value end

Priority - Precedence Operator Description Associativity
Precedence Level ( ) Parentheses 1 ! Logical NOT 2 * Multiplication Left to right 3 / Division % Modulo division + Addition 4 - Subtraction < Less than 5 <= Less than or equal to >= Greater than or equal to > Greater than = Equal to 6 != Not equal to AND Logical AND 7 OR Logical OR 8 Operator Precedence

Conditional Execution
Many problems require decisions to be made. All decisions may or may not state an action to be taken if the condition is false. The following types of decision-making constructs can be used in an algorithm. if constructs switch…case constructs

In simple if construct, if the condition specified is true, the statements contained within the if block are executed. Pseudocode segment to represent the simple if constructs as follows: if <condition> begin <statements to be executed if condition is true> end endif

In the if...else construct, the statements within the if block are executed for condition being true and the statements within the else block are executed for condition being false. if <condition> begin <statements to be executed if condition is true> end else condition is false> endif

If Construct Problem Statement 1: Solution:
Accept two numbers and print the larger of the two numbers. Solution: begin numeric nNum1, nNum2 accept nNum1 accept nNum2 if nNum1 = nNum2 display “The numbers are equal” end

If Construct else if nNum1> nNum2 begin display nNum1 end
endif // end of second if statement endif // end of first if statement

If Construct Problem Statement 2: Solution:
Print the value of nX only if the value of nX is greater than 10 and nX is an even number. Solution: begin numeric nX accept nX if nX > //first if-statement if nX % 2 = //second if-statement display nX endif // end of second if-statement end endif //end of first if statement

If Construct Problem Statement 3:
To decide about the discount percentage on a TV, the sales person needs to check the type of TV. If the TV is Black and White [B], the discount will be 5 percent of the selling price. If the type of TV is colored [C], then he has to verify the size of TV screen. For 14 inches screen, discount is 8 percent of the selling price and for 21 inches screen, the discount is 10 percent of the selling price. Write a pseudocode to show the discount percentage.

If Construct Solution: compute nDiscount as 8% of SP begin
numeric nScreen, nDiscount, SP character cType accept nType accept nScreen accept SP if cType = ‘B’ // first if statement compute nDiscount as 5% of SP end else if cType = ‘C’ // second if statement if nScreen =14 // third if statement compute nDiscount as 8% of SP

If Construct else begin if nScreen = 21 // fourth if statement
compute nDiscount as 10% of SP end endif // end of fourth if statement endif // end of third if statement endif // end of second if statement endif // end of first if statement

The switch…case construct
The switch…case construct enables you to make a decision by selecting from number of choices. The pseudocode of the switch…case construct is as follows: switch (expression) begin case constant 1: execute these statements break case constant 2: default: end

Problem 1 Consider the following problem statement for switch…case construct. Amy is writing the algorithm for automated telephone call transfer to various departments of the company such as Marketing, Finance, Customer Care, Human Resource (HR), and Information. Write the solution using Pseudocode.

Problem 1 begin numeric nCall
display “If you want to get connected to Marketing department, press 1, Finance department press 2, Customer Care department press 3, HR department press 4. If you are not sure press any number other than 1 to 4, the call will be transferred to Information department” accept nCall

Problem 1 switch (nCall) begin case 1: //case 1 begins
Transfer call to the Marketing department break case 2: //case 2 begins Transfer call to the Finance department case 3: //case 3 begins Transfer call to the Customer Care department case 4: //case 4 begins Transfer call to the HR department default: //if none of the cases match, the //following line is executed Transfer call to the Information department end

Vocabulary - Programming
Decision-making construct: cấu trúc ra quyết định Loop construct: cấu trúc lặp Procedure: thủ tục Function: hàm to invoke: triệu gọi Parameter: tham số scope (local, global): phạm vi biến modular approach of programming: lập trình tiếp cận theo hướng chia module

Problem Statement 1: Problem Statement 1:
Write a pseudocode to display the sum of two numbers by using variables. Solution: begin accept nNum1 //assigning values to variables accept nNum2 nSum = nNum1 + nNum2 display nSum end

Problem Statement 2 Problem Statement 2:
Write a pseudocode where interest is calculated and displayed for the given balance and rate. Solution: begin //start accept Name, Balance, Rate //input compute Interest as Balance x Rate //process display Name and Interest //output end //end

Problem Statement 3 Problem Statement 3: Solution:
Write a pseudocode where a number is incremented by 1 Solution: begin //starting accept Number //input compute Number as Number //process display Number //output end //end

Problem 4: Bình 2 Bình 1 Bình 2 Bình 1 Bình 2 Bình 1 Bình 2 Bình 1
Numeric nNum1, nNum2, nSwap nNum1 = 5 nNum2 = 6 nSwap = 0 nSwap = nNum1 nNum1 = nNum2 nNum2 = nSwap Given: nNum1 = 5, nNum2 = 6 Swap their value together. Bình rỗng Bình 2 Bình 1 Bình rỗng Bình 2 Bình 1 Bình rỗng Bình 2 Bình 1 Bình rỗng Bình 2 Bình 1

A Problem 5:

Flowchart

Problem-solving using Flowcharts

Drawing Flowchart

Rules of Flowcharting The entire logic of a flowchart should be represented using the standard symbols. The flowchart should be clear, precise, and easy to follow. Flowcharts can have only one start point and one end point. The steps in a flowchart should follow top-to-bottom or left-to-right approach. All necessary inputs should be listed out in logical order. The start and stop symbols should have only a single flow line. The input, process, output, and display symbols should have two flow lines connecting to the previous symbol and to the next symbol. The decision symbol should have one flow line connecting to the previous symbol but two flow lines connecting to the next symbol for each possible solution such as Yes/No, Y/N, True/False. If too many flow lines make the flowchart complex, it is better to use connector symbols to reduce the number of flow lines. Flowcharts should use page connectors if they extend over multiple pages. It is useful to test the logic of flowchart by passing through it with sample test data.

Conditional Execution using Flowchart

Nested If- Statements in Flowchart

Switch - case

Interation while loop repeat…until loop for loop goto
One of the most important characteristics of a computer is its ability to execute a series of instructions repeatedly. This ability of the computer gives you the flexibility to control the number of times a task is to be repeated. The following types of loops can be used in a pseudocode: while loop repeat…until loop for loop goto

For loop The for loop: The for loop is used when the number of iterations of the loop is known before the control enters the loop. The for loop consists of the following three parts separated by semicolons. Initialization expression: The numeric variable is initialized using a value. Evaluation expression: The condition is tested at the beginning of iteration of the loop. When the expression evaluates to false, the loop terminates. Increment/decrement expression: The value of the variable is increased. In a for loop, initializing a variable, evaluating a condition, and incrementing the value of the variable are all specified in one statement.

For loop begin initialize the index for test the index increment the index //perform the statements if the test is true end endfor //end of for loop //perform the statements if the test is false

For Loop The pseudocode representation of a for loop is as follows:
begin initialize the index for test the index increment the index // perform the statements if the test is true end endfor //end of for loop // perform the if the test is false

Problem Statement 1 Problem Statement 1:
Draw a flowchart to calculate the sum of 10 numbers entered by the user.

The while Loop : while (condition) begin end

Problem 2 begin numeric nMarks, nTotal, nCounter, nAvg nMarks = 0 nTotal = 0 nCounter = 0 nAvg = 0 while (nCounter < 30) //while the condition is true display “Enter the total marks of a student” accept nMarks nTotal = nTotal + nMarks nCounter = nCounter + 1 //increments the counter by one end nAvg = nTotal / nCounter //calculates the average display “The average marks of the class is” display nAvg //displays the average

The repeat…until Loop : repeat begin end until (condition)

The goto Statement A goto statement is used in situations in which the execution of a pseudocode does not follow the steps in a sequential order. To use a goto statement in a pseudocode, you need to use labels. A label identifies the position in a pseudocode where the control of execution can reach using a goto statement. While assigning name to a label, a colon should follow the label name. begin numeric nCounter nCounter=2 Label1: nCounter=nCounter+2 display nCounter //displays all the even numbers if(nCounter<=100) goto Label1 //transfers the control to Label1 end

Modular Approach to Programming
A program needs to be amended periodically to respond to changing conditions or requirements. This encouraged programmers to adopt a more disciplined approach to program writing. The techniques that were adopted are known as structured programming techniques. Structured programming includes features that are designed not only to solve the problem at hand but also to make the logic clear to someone reading the program.

Modular Approach to Programming
Long, continuous programs can be broken up into a series of individual modules that are related to each other in a specified manner.

Procedure Procedure: In a modular approach, one of the methods of representing a module is procedure. The working of a procedure is termed as a call-return mechanism . The following steps are part of a call–return mechanism: A procedure is called. The set of operations stored within the procedure are executed. The control is returned to the calling code.

Procedure Declaring, Defining, and Invoking Procedures: Procedures need to be declared and defined before they can be called. The declaration of procedures is similar to a declaration of any other variable in an pseudocode. Procedures are declared using the following syntax: procedure <procedure_name> The procedure is defined when the procedure is expressed with its body. The syntax of the procedure definition is: begin //the set of statements of a procedure end The calling of a procedure is also called invoking a procedure. The method for invoking procedure is known as a procedure call. The syntax of a procedure call is: call <procedure_name>

Procedure Problem Statement 1:
Accept the test scores for ten students and display their individual averages. The scores of the students cannot be negative. The following table lists the variables used in the solution. Variable Data Type Variable Name Student Name character cStudentName Score of Test1 numeric nTest1 Score of Test2 nTest2 Score of Test3 nTest3 Average of Test Scores nAverage

Procedure //code segment to calculate average marks of 10 students
Solution: //code segment to calculate average marks of 10 students procedure Accept // declaring subprogram Accept procedure Average // declaring subprogram Average begin numeric nTest1, nTest2, nTest3, nAverage character cStudentName call Accept // calling subprogram Accept call Average // calling subprogram Avearge display cStudentName nAverage end // code for the subprograms comes here :

Display “Test score cannot
Procedure Accept Accept cStudentName Accept Average Accept nTest1 Average nAverage=(nTest1+nTest2 +nTest3) / 3 Accept nTest2 Display cStudentName, nAverage Accept nTest3 Return Is nTest1>=0 AND nTest2>=0 AND nTest3>=0 ? Yes Return No Display “Test score cannot be less than zero”

Procedure Problem Statement 2:
The total expenditure on salaries for the month needs to be calculated. As per company policy an employee receives a minimum of $500. Depict the logic for automating the task by using pseudocode and flowchart.

Solution Solution: : if cChoice = “ Y” begin
call Accept //invoking Accept call Summation //invoking Summation end procedure Accept //statements of the subprogram accept nSalary

Solution if nSalary >=500 begin return // returning the value end
else display ‘Salary cannot be less than $500” endif end // end of the subprogram procedure Summation // statements of the subprogram nTotSalary = nTotSalary +nSalary return nTotSalary

Procedure Parameters Procedure Parameters: Parameters are like a bridge between the procedure and the calling code. Parameters comprise data that is used and processed by a procedure. Parameters can be variables of the numeric or character data type. Parameters are used to perform the following tasks: Send data to a procedure Retrieve data from a procedure

Function Function: The function is called from the calling code.
A function is a block of statements that perform a specific task. The underlying fundamental of functions and procedures are very similar, and they can be used interchangeably. The difference between a function and a procedure is that a procedure does not return any value to a calling program while a function returns a value to the calling program after it is executed. The functions in a pseudocode interact with each other by passing and receiving data. Functions also operate on the call–return mechanism. The following are the steps in the call–return mechanism using functions: The function is called from the calling code. The sets of operations within the functions are executed. The execution is returned to the calling code using a return value

Function Declaring, Defining, and Invoking Functions:
Functions are declared like any other procedure or variable. The declaration format is function <function_name> The function are defined same as procedures. The only difference is that they have a return statement at the end. The syntax of the function definition is: function <function_name> begin //the function statements return // The function returns some value end After a function is declared, it can be invoked from the pseudocode. The method for invoking functions is known as a function call. The syntax for the function call is: call <function_name>

Function Parameters Function Parameters:
Function parameters form an interface between the function and the calling code. Functions accept values in the form of parameters. If parameters are specified, they should be separated using commas. Unlike procedures, the functions use the parameters only for receiving data from the calling code. They send value to the calling code using the return statement. Therefore, functions have only input parameters.

Scope of Variables Scope of Variables:
Variables can be declared within or outside the begin…end block of a main pseudocode, procedure, or function. Depending on the place where variables are declared the variables have two types of scope. Local Scope Global Scope The variables that are declared inside the begin...end block of a main pseudocode, function, or procedure have local scope and they are called local variables.

Scope of Variables The following pseudocode describes the local scope of the variables. begin numeric nNum display “Enter any number” accept nNum if (nNum > 10) numeric nRemainder nRemainder = nNum % 2 display nRemainder end endif

Scope of Variables Following pseudocode describes the local scope using function. begin numeric nNum display “Enter any number” accept nNum if (nNum > 10) call displayRemainder(nNum) display nRemainder //an invalid statement end endif function displayRemainder (numeric nNumber) numeric nRemainder nRemainder = nNumber % 2 display nRemainder

Scope of Variables Procedure Test() begin numeric nX, nY nX = 6 nY = 10 Display nX, nY Call Test () End Begin numeric nX nx = 9

Scope of Parameters Scope of Parameters:
The parameters of a procedure or function are variables that can be accessed only from inside the procedure or the function. This implies that the parameters act as the local variables of a function or a procedure. The following comprise the scope of parameters: Parameters exist only inside the function or procedure for which they are defined. They cannot be accessed from outside the function or procedure. They retain their value until the function or procedure is executed. Parameters are initialized every time the function or procedure is called.

Questions A compiler is: A detailed flowchart is called a:
A high-level language Language-specific A machine language A source code A detailed flowchart is called a: Macro flowchart Lengthy flowchart Micro flowchart Detailed flowchart The symbol that represents comments in a flowchart is: A procedure/subroutine symbol An input symbol An annotation symbol A flow line Which of the following is NOT a type of algorithm? Flowchart Program Pseudocode Decision table

Question Literals are: Values that change continuously
Which operators are used to test the relationship between two variables or between a variable and a constant? Arithmetic operators Logical operators Relational operators Special operators Literals are: Values that change continuously Memory locations Values that do not change Names given to variables A statement consisting of variables, literals, constants, and operators is called a/an: Function Identifier Operator Expression Input is accepted using the keyword accept in: Pseudocode A Flowchart An Algorithm An Expressiont

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Introduction to Programming Logic and Technique

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