2. The Neural Basis of Speech Perception – a view from functional imaging Sophie Scott Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London

3. This approach to speech perception Speech is an auditory signal It is possible to address the neural processing of speech within the framework of auditory cortical processing. This is not synonymous with the entire language system. If one is a skilled speaker of a language, then speech perception is obligatory.

4. Functional imaging Where neural activity occurs, blood is directed. Measure neural activity by tracking these changes in local blood flow. Thus measuring mass synaptic activity Poor temporal resolution Essentially a comparison of blood flow changes across conditions - so the baseline comparisons are critical

5. Listening Wise et al, Lancet, 2001

6. Neuroanatomy of speech Speech production Speech perception

7. sts Ins TS2 TS1 TS3 A1 Tpt paAlt Pro caudal CORE BELT PARABELT rostral medial lateral sts dorsal RTM RM CM R RT A1 RTL AL ML MC RP CP Scott and Johnsrude, 2003, from Romanski et al, 1999

8. AIRRTCLMLALSTGc CBP RBP STGr Dorsal prearcuate (8a) Dorsal principal sulcus (46) Inferior convexity (12) Orbital polar From Kaas and Hackett, 1999 CoreBeltParabelt Prefrontal cortex

10. tonotopy bandwidth Conspecific vocalisations Spatial representations

11. HG PT C B PB Assoc Tpt AnteriorPosterior Ventral STS STP STS STP Human Monkey

12. medial Scott and Johnsrude, 2003 anterior posterior lateral AA MA LA A1 PA STA ALA LP

13. medial Scott and Johnsrude, 2003 anterior posterior lateral Sounds with harmonic structure against pure tones: Hall, Johnsrude et al., 2002 Frequency modulated tones against unmodulated tones: Hall, Johnsrude et al., 2002 Amplitude modulated noise against unmodulated noise: Giraud et al, 1999 Spectral change against steady state sounds: Thivard et al, 2000

14. Hierarchical processing Structure in sound is computed beyond primary auditory cortex More complex structure (e.g. spectral change) processed further from PAC How does this relate to speech processing?

15. speech noise vocoded speech rotated speech rotated noise vocoded speech

16. Sp VCo RSp RVCo -2 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 2 Anterior -60 -4 -10 Z = 6.6 -54 +6 -16 Z = 4.7 -62 -12 -12 Z = 5.5 -64 -38 0 Z = 5.7 (Sp + VCo + RSp) - RVCo (Sp + VCo) - (RSp + RVCo) Left hemisphere Scott, Blank, Rosen and Wise, 2000

17. 1 0 2 Sp VCo RSp RVCo Right hemisphere Anterior +66 -12 0 Z = 6.7 (Sp + RSp) - (VCo + RVCo) Scott, Blank, Rosen and Wise, 2000

18. Intelligibility

19. Plasticity within this system Naïve subjects were scanned before they could understand noise vocoded speech, then they were trained, then scanned again.

20. Activity to noise vocoded speech after a training period, relative to prior activity to NVC before the training period. Narain, Wise, Rosen, Matthews, Scott, under review. Flexibility in speech perception: learning to understand noise vocoded speech As well as left lateralised STS, there is involvement of left premotor cortex and the left anterior thalamus (which receive projections from the belt and parabelt).

21. Spectrograms of the stimuli (speech) 16 8 4 3 2 1 (rotated speech) 16R 3R

22. Intelligibility - behavioural data

23. Right Scott, Rosen, Lang and Wise, 2006 Z=5.96 x=64 y=-4 z=-2 Z=4.73 x=-48 y=-16 z=-16 Z=4.52 x=-64 y=-28 z=8Z=5.6 x=-62 y=-10 z=80 Left 1 2 3 4 8 16 3R 16R

24. medial Scott and Johnsrude, 2003 anterior posterior lateral Sounds with harmonic structure against pure tones: Hall, Johnsrude et al., 2002 Frequency modulated tones against unmodulated tones: Hall, Johnsrude et al., 2002 Amplitude modulated noise against unmodulated noise: Giraud et al, 1999 Spectral change against steady state sounds: Thivard et al, 2000 Peak responses to Intelligibility (Scott et al, 2006)

25. Speech specific processing Does not occur in primary auditory cortexd Begins early in auditory cortex - in areas that also respond to AM As we move forward down the STS, the responses become less sensitive to acoustic structure - resembles behavioural profile

26. Speech comprehension - The role of context e.g., words recognised more easily in sentences “The ship sailed the sea” > “Paul discussed the dive”. Can we identify the neural basis of this contextual modulation of speech comprehension? (Miller et al., 1951; Boothroyd and Nittrouer, 1988; Grant and Seitz, 2000; Stickney and Assmann, 2001; Davis et al., 2005)

27. (noise vocoding: Shannon et al., 1995 predictability: Kalikow et al., 1977)

28. Low predictability: log increase with more channels …‘Sue was interested in the bruise’… jonas obleser 27

29. Behav 2 low+high High predictability: influence at intermediate number of channels …‘He caught the fish in his net’… …‘Sue was interested in the bruise’… jonas obleser 28

30. (cf. e.g. Binder et al. 2000; Scott et al., 2000; Davis & Johnsrude 2003; Zekveld et al., 2006) Bottom-up processes: correlations with number of channels RFX p 30 Obleser, Wise, Dresner, & Scott, 2007

31. Left-hemispheric array of brain regions when context affects comprehension Lateral Prefrontal (BA 8) Posterior Cingulate (BA 30) Medial Prefrontal (BA 9) Angular Gyrus (BA 39) Ventral IFG (BA 47) RFX p 30 Obleser, Wise, Dresner, & Scott, 2007

32. findings A range of brain areas outwith auditory cortex contribute to ‘top down’ semantic influences on speech perception Further studies will be able to dissociate the contributions of different linguistic factors

33. Words are not the only things we say

34. Non speech sounds? x=54 Regions in red respond to noises and rotated noises Regions in yellow respond to noises and rotated noises

35. 1 0 2 Sp VCo RSp RVCo Right hemisphere Anterior +66 -12 0 Z = 6.7 (Sp + RSp) - (VCo + RVCo)

36. What drives lateral asymmetry? Previous studies have not generally used ‘speech-like’ acoustic modulations We aimed to manipulate speech stimuli to vary the amplitude and spectral properties of speech independently Control for intelligibility Do we see additive effects of amplitude and spectral modulations? Are these left lateralised?

37. Steady spectrum, steady amplitude Steady spectrum, varying amplitude Varying spectrum, steady amplitude Varying spectrum, varying amplitude

38. Ideal additive effects Effect size Down for flat amplitude and spectrumSimilar response to AM and SpM Significantly more activated by stimuli with both AM and SpM

39. Additive effects Flat AM SpM SpMAM PET scanning, 16 runs, N=13, thresholded at p<0.0001, 40 voxels

40. Additive effects Flat AM SpM SpMAM PET scanning, 16 runs, N=13, thresholded at p<0.0001, 40 voxels

41. But… Is there a problem - were these stimuli really processed as speech? To address this, 6 of the 13 subjects were pretrained on speech exemplars, and the speech stimuli were included as a 5th condition.

42. A B C D E speech

43. A B C D E

44. Speech conditions Flat AM SpM SpMAM N=6, thresholded at p<0.0001, 40 voxels

45. Speech conditions Flat AM SpM SpMAM N=6, thresholded at p<0.0001, 40 voxels

46. Asymmetries in speech perception Exist! Are not driven by simple properties of the speech signal Right - preferentially processes speech- like sounds - voices? Left - processes linguistically relevant information

47. Posterior auditory areas In primates, medial posterior areas show auditory and tactile responses What do these areas do in speech processing in humans?

48. Speaking and mouthing This region, in the left posterior temporal- parietal junction, responds when subject repeat a phrase, mouth the phrase silently, or go ‘uh uh’, over mentally rehearsing the phrase Wise, Scott, Blank, Murphy, Mummery and Warburton, 2001 Wise et al, 2001, Brain

50. Listening over silence Amount of DAF (0, 50, 125, 200ms)

51. DAF peak on right 0 50 125 200

52. Neural basis of speech perception Hierarchical processing of sound in auditory cortex The anterior ‘what’ pathway is important in the perceptual processing of speech Activity in this system can be modulated by top down linguistic factors There are hemispheric asymmetries in speech perception - the left is driven by phonetic, lexical and linguistic properties: the right is driven by pitch variation, emotion and indexical properties There are sensory motor links in posterior auditory areas - part of a ‘how’ pathway?

53. what where what how where Scott, in press Scott, Current Opinions in Neurobiology, 2005

54. Charlotte Jacquemot Frank Eisner Disa Sauter Carolyn McGettigan Narly Golestani Jonas Obleser Sophie Scott Stuart Rosen Richard Wise Charvy Narain Andrew Faulkner Hideki Takaso