1. Spring 2015 Ohio Northern University
GEOG 2681: Cartography
Spring 2015
Ohio Northern University

2. Roots of the discipline
Geo / graphy: “description of the earth.”
“a science that deals with the description, distribution, and interaction of the diverse physical, biological, and cultural features of the earth's surface”
"The science concerned with the formulation of the laws governing the spatial distribution of certain features on the surface of the earth.“
"...concerned with the locational or spatial variation in both physical and human phenomena at the earth's surface“
“…study the location and distribution of features on the Earth’s surface” [observational science: explain and predict]

3. Geography Oldest of the sciences?
Herodotus: father of modern geography
“Historia” mid-fifth century BC
Aristotle ( BC): physical geography
Eratosthenes ( BC): measures Earth circumference
Strabo (64 BC – AD 24): “Geographica”
Ptolemy (~AD 150) early cartographer, map maker

4. Geography: oldest of the sciences?
At the dawn of humankind, people made crude sketches of geography on cave walls and rocks.
These early maps documented and communicated important geographic knowledge our ancestors needed to survive:
What is the best way to get from here to there?
Where is the water at this time of year?
Where is the best place to hunt animals?
Our ancestors faced critical choices that determined their survival or demise, and they used information stored in map form to help them make better decisions.
SOURCE: “Understanding Our World,” in Essays on Geography and GIS, ESRI 2012, p. 52.

5. Carto/ graphy: [from Greek Χάρτης, khartes = papyrus (paper) and graphein = to write] is the study and practice of making maps:
Combining science, aesthetics, and technique, cartography builds on the premise that reality can be modeled in ways that communicate spatial information effectively.

6. What is a map?
A map is defined as a representation, usually on a flat surface, of a whole or part of an area.
The job of a map is to describe spatial relationships of specific features that the map aims to represent.
There are many different types of maps that attempt to represent specific things. 
Mapmakers, also known as cartographers, use a variety of tools to make maps

7. Nature of Cartography Maps: two important functions:
storage medium for information
picture of the world to help us understand spatial patterns and spatial relationships
Analog cartography: procedures of map making
Digital cartography: use of technology
digital database replacing printed map,
cartographic visualizations on diff. media

8. Cartography Today Shortcomings to the use of digital technology:
lack of data in readily useable form
software specific formats or data too specialized
high costs to convert
lack of skilled professionals
cartographic development lags behind tech. potential
standardization of data
data quality, exchange, interoperability
Map-making shifting from professionals  map users
need to focus on non-specialists is new for educators

9. Nature of Cartography Maps as forms of communication
Characteristics all maps share
Effectiveness in thought & commun-ication

10. Maps as forms of communication
Forms of knowledge representation:
literacy: written language
articulacy: spoken language
numeracy: symbolizing abstractions, numbers
graphicacy: drawing, painting, plans & diagrams
describing spatial relationships:
map: graphic representation of geog. setting
cartography: is the making and study of maps
teaching skills of map use, maintaining map collections, data collection, preparing maps, charts, atlases
the map: central object that unites all cartographers

11. Basic characteristics of maps
All maps are concerned with two elements of reality:
location: position in 2-D space (x, y coordinates)
attributes: qualities (lang.) or magnitudes (temp.)
relationships among:
locations with no attributes involved (distance/direction)
attributes at one location (temps., precip., soils)
location of distribution of one attribute (pop. density)
locations of combined attributes (per capita income/educ.)
distances, direction, adjacency, insidedness, patterns, interactions = topological relationships

12. Basic characteristics of maps
All maps are reductions of reality
map is smaller than the region it portrays
defined dimensional relationship between map and reality = scale
scale sets limit to how much reality is portrayed or included on the map.
All maps involve geometric transformations
transform round surface to flat map or screen
called a map projection
choice of projection depends on how map used
map referencing system = plane coordinate grids
helps calculate distances and directions
coordinate systems depend on projection for accuracy.

13. Basic characteristics of maps
All maps are abstractions of reality
diversity of real world more confusing when reduced
show only necessary information
data is classified and simplified to make understanding easy
All maps use signs or symbols as a represent-ation of reality
few words as well as symbols have universal meanings
All map symbols use marks
lines, dots, colors, patterns...
their selection and arrangement?

14. Categories of maps Almost unlimited variety of maps
“maps have many functions and many faces, and each of us sees them with different eyes” (Skelton 1972)
Problem  How to categorize?
Categorize from 3 different points of view
classed by scale
classed by function, or
classed by their subject matter.

15. 1. Classed by Scale Ratio of dimension of a map to reality
Mapmakers can't draw maps the same size as the area they represent; the maps would be too big. So they draw features smaller than they actually are.
What is map scale?
The consistent relationship between size on a map and size in real life is called scale.
For instance, a map may use one inch to represent what is actually 24,000 inches on earth. Mapmakers express scale as a mathematical ratio, or fraction. The unit on the map is expressed as the number one (numerator). A scale of 1:24,000 would be read as "one to twenty-four thousand."
We cannot easily visualize a value such as 24,000 inches, so maps usually not only show the scale ratio but convert the ratio to units of measurement. For example, a 1:24,000 map can also be expressed as 1 inch = 2000 feet, or about four-tenths of a mile.

17. Ratio of dimension of map to reality
1. Classed by Scale
Ratio of dimension of map to reality
Small scale map = large area, very general detail.
Around 1:50,000 or less
Large scale map = small area, greater detail
1:500,000 or more
Medium scale map = everything in between
No clear division among the classes

23. classifying maps according to function:
2. Classed by Function
classifying maps according to function:
no clear distinction among functions of maps
Three main categories of maps:
General Reference Maps
Thematic Maps
Charts

24. General Reference Maps
Objective?
Show locations of various features
water, roads, coastlines, railroads...
Large-scale reference maps:
Topographic maps
photogrammetric methods
Larger scale maps: site location/engineering
great attention to positional accuracy (legal documents)
Official map accuracy standards
Small-scale general reference maps:
states, counties, countries, continents  Atlases
shows same as large scale, but less detail

26. Thematic Maps Also known as special purpose maps
distribution of single attribute or several related
satellite cloud cover images
election results
precipitation, temperature
population
average annual income
if objective is to show location  general purpose map
thematic maps tend to be smaller scale
show geographic distribution over wide area (vs. abs. location)
available data > resolution to course
regional comparisons vs. site-level decisions

28. Charts
Maps especially designed to serve nautical & aeronautical navigators...
Maps are to be looked at, charts to be worked on
plot courses, determine positions
navigators also use general reference maps
maritime equivalent of topographic map  bathymetric map
Two types of aeronautical charts:
visual and instrument navigation
Road map is a type of chart  land navigation
There are few “pure” general ref. or thematic maps
Charts have one specific function

29. 3. Classed by Subject Matter
Several important categories of subjects…
Cadastral maps: made to accompany the cadastre
official list of property owners & land holdings
geographic relationship among land parcels
cadastres used to assess taxes…
Maps referred to as plans:
detailed maps showing buildings, boundary lines etc.
plans form basis for topographical map series
Ordnance Survey of United Kingdom

30. Cartographic representation
Principal job of cartography?
Communicate environmental information
mapping costs, accuracy, aesthetics… but
mapping effectiveness in thought & communication
Treat the making and using of maps equally:
Cartographer’s job: enhance map users ability to retrieve information.
Map users job: understand the mapping process
Series of information transformations:
collect  select  symbolize  reading  analysis  interpret
cartographer’s job?  ramifications of each stage of process

31. The Scope of Cartography
There are four “processes” in cartography:
collecting & selecting data for the map,
manipulating & generalizing the data & designing & constructing the map,
reading or viewing the map,
responding to, or interpreting the map.
Have be familiar with other mapping sciences:
geodesy, surveying, remote sensing, GIS
cognitive sciences (human thought & understanding),
and disciplines associated with features being mapped