1. Measurement Scales
指導教授：洪新原 教授
張顥獻
蔡毓萍

2. Catalog The nature of attitude Selecting a measurement scale
Rating scales
Ranking scales
Sorting
Cumulative scales

3. Learning objective
The nature of attitudes and their relationship to behavior.
The critical decisions involved in selecting an appropriate measurement scale.
The characteristics and use of rating, ranking, sorting, and other preference scales.

4. The scaling process

5. The nature of attitudes
The relationship between Attitudes and Behavior
Attitude scaling

6. The nature of attitudes
What is attitude?
Attitude is a learned stable predisposition to respond to oneself, other persons, object, or issues in a consistently favorable or unfavorable way.

7. The nature of attitudes
Cognitive
I think oatmeal is healthier
than corn flakes for breakfast.
Affective
I hate corn flakes.
Behavioral
I intend to eat more oatmeal
for breakfast. 7

8. The relationship between Attitudes and Behavior
The attitude-behavior relationship is not straightforward, although there may be close linkage
Attitudes don’t always lead to actual behaviors
Sometimes behaviors can influence attitudes

9. Factors affect the attitude research
Specific attitudes
Strong attitudes
Experiences
Cognitive-based better than affective-based

10. Factors affect the attitude research
Affective-based better predict consumption behaviors
Multiple measurements across time and environments
The influence of group and individual’s inclination

11. Attitude scaling Scaling Example
Procedure for the assignment of numbers to a property of objects in order to impact some of the characteristics of numbers to the properties in question.
Example
Thermometer

12. Selecting a measurement scale
Research objective
Response types
Data properties
Number of dimensions
Balanced or unbalanced
Forced or unforced choices
Number of scale points
Rater errors

13. Research objectives Too numerous to list
But here are two general types
Measure characteristics of the participants
Use participants as judges of the objects

14. Response types Rating scale Ranking scale
Participants score an object without making a comparison to another object
Ranking scale
Constrain the participant to making comparisons and determining order among properties

15. Response types Categorization Sorting
Participants put themselves or property indicants in group or categories
Sorting
Participants sort cards into piles using criteria established by the researcher

16. Data properties Nominal scale Ordinal scale Interval scale Ratio scale
Classify data into categories
Ordinal scale
Show the relationships of more or less than
Interval scale
With the distance relationship
Ratio scale
Possess the above properties

17. Number of dimensions Unidimensional scale Multidimensional scale
One seeks to measure only one attribute of the participants or objects
Multidimensional scale
Better describe an object with several dimensions than unidimensional scale

18. Balanced or unbalanced
Balanced rating scale
An equal number of categories above and below the midpoint
Unbalanced rating scale
An unequal number of favorable and unfavorable response choices
Expect the mean rating will be near one side
Avoid the error of leniency

19. How good an actress is Jennifer Lawrence?
Balanced or unbalanced
How good an actress is Jennifer Lawrence?
Very bad Bad Neither good nor bad Good Very good
Poor Fair Good Very good Excellent 19

20. Forced or Unforced choice
Unforced-choice rating scale
Provide participants with an opportunity to express no opinion
Forced-choice rating scale
Requires participants select one of the offered alternative
May cause some error of the result

21. How good an actress is Jennifer Lawrence?
Forced or Unforced choice
How good an actress is Jennifer Lawrence?
Very bad Bad Neither good nor bad Good Very good No opinion
Very bad Bad Neither good nor bad Good Very good 21

22. Number of scale points What is the ideal number of points?
A scale should be appropriate for its purpose
Easy to make decision
Simple scale
The object is complex or important
More scale points

23. Number of scale points
The reliability increases if the number of scale points increases
Much more number of scale points may produce more valid results
To extract more variance
Produce accuracy when using Unidimensional scale
The cultural practices may condition participants to a standard metric

24. Rater errors Error of central tendency Error of leniency
Some raters reluctant to give extreme judgments
Error of leniency

25. Rater errors To address the tendencies
Adjust the strength of descriptive adjectives
Space the intermediate descriptive phrases farther apart
Provide smaller differences in meaning between the steps near the ends of the scale than between the steps near the center
Use more points in the scale

26. Rater errors Halo effect To avoid halo effect
A systematic bias that the rater introduces by carrying over a generalized impression of the subject from one rating to another
To avoid halo effect
Participant rate one trait at a time
Revealing one trait per page
Reverse anchors periodically

27. Rating Scales Simple attitude scale Likert scales
Semantic differential scales
Numerical scales
Multiple rating list scales
Stapel scales
Constant-sum scales
Graphic rating scales

28. Simple Attitude Scale
The simple category scale(also called a dichotomous scale) offers two mutually exclusive response choice.
I plan to purchase a MindWriter laptop in the next 12 months.
Yes No
簡單態度量表 28

29. Simple Attitude Scale
When there are multiple options for the rater but only one answer is sought, the multiple-choice, single-response scale is appropriate.
What newspaper do you read most often for financial news?
East City Gazette
West City Tribune
Regional newspaper
National newspaper
Other (specify:_________)
多重選項單選式量表 29

30. Simple Attitude Scale
The multiple-choice, multiple-response scale(also called a checklist), allows the rater to select one or several alternatives.
Check any of the sources you consulted when designing your new home.
Online planning services
Magazines
Independent contractor/builder
Designer
Architect
Other (specify:_______)
多重選項複選式量表 30

31. Likert scale
The Likert scale, is the most frequently used variation of the summated rating scale.
The participant is asked to agree or disagree with each statement.
Each response is given a numerical score to reflect its degree of attitudinal favorableness.
李克特量表
加總評等量表 31

32. Likert scale
A large number of statements were collected that met two criteria
Each statement was relevant to the attitude being studied.
Each was believed to reflect a favorable or unfavorable position on that attitude.
The Internet is superior to traditional libraries for comprehensive searches.
Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Neither Agree nor Disagree
Agree
Strongly Agree 32

33. Likert scale
The two extreme groups represent people with the most favorable and least favorable attitudes toward the attitude being studied.
Item analysis:
It involves calculating the mean scores for each scale item among the low scores and high scorers.
The mean scores for the high-score and low-score groups are then tested for statistical significance by computing t values.
兩個極端族群代表非常贊同與非常反對的兩種人。對這兩個極端必須進行個別項目的評估。
項目分析評估各項目是否能有效鑑別高分者與低分者。計算各項目高分者與低分者的平均分數，然後以t值來檢其統計顯著性。
算出每項敘述的t值後，將其排序並找出t值最高的敘述句，挑選前20~25個最高t值的項目，納入最後的量表之中。 33

34. Semantic differential scale
Semantic differential scale measures the psychological meanings of an attitude object using bipolar adjectives.
語意差別量表 34

35. Semantic differential scale
Osgood and his associates produced a list of 289 bipolar adjective pairs, which were reduced to 76pairs and formed into rating scales for attitude research.
There factors contributed most to meaningful judgments by participants:
Evaluation (E)
Potency (P)
Activity (A)

36. Result of the thesaurus study
Evaluation (E)
Potency (P)
Activity (A)
good—bad
Hard—soft
Active—passive
Positive—negative
Strong—weak
Fast—slow
Optimistic—pessimistic
Heavy—light
Hot—cold
Complete—incomplete
Masculine—feminine
Excitable--calm
Time—untimely
Severe—lenient
Tenacious—yielding

37. Semantic differential scale
Steps in constructing an SD scale
Step1
Select the concepts
Nouns, noun phrases, or nonverbal stimuli such as visual sketches .
Concepts are chosen by judgment and reflect the nature of the investigative question.
Step2
Select bipolar word pairs or phrase pairs
Select bipolar word pairs or phrase pairs appropriate to your needs.
Step3
: Create the scoring system
Assign a weight to each point on the scale.
Most SD scales have 7 points:7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1
Step4
Adjective pairs are randomly reversed
as with Likert scales, about half of the adjective pairs are randomly reversed to minimize the halo effect.

38. About step2…..
If the traditional Osgood adjectives are used, several criteria guide your selection:
Three bipolar pairs are required when using evaluation, potency, and activity. Scores on these individual items can be averaged, by factor, to improve their reliability.
The scale should be relevant to the concepts being judged.
Scales should be stable across raters and concepts.
Scale should be linear between polar opposites and pass through the origin.

39. Semantic differential scale
SD Scale for Analyzing industry Association Candidates
左排的字母代表相關的態度構面，不會顯示在實際量表內，數字部分會顯現出來。
請注意評價、力量與行動三類尺度都混在一起了。
在分析結果時，要算出評價(E)分數的平均值，而力量(P)與行動(A)構面亦然。 39

40. Semantic differential scale
The data are plotted in a “snake diagram”
資料被畫在圖表的蛇形圖上，此處重新排序評價、力量與行動三類形容詞組，同類者放在一起，量表左側反映理想的因素。 40

41. Numerical Scale
Numerical Scale have equal intervals that separate their numeric scale points.
Numerical scales are often 5-point scales.
The participants write a number from the scale next to each item.
數值量表 41

42. Multiple Rating List Scale
It is similar to the numerical scale but differs in two ways:
It accepts a circled response from the rater.
The layout facilitates visualization of the results.
多元評等清單量表
“Please indicate how important or unimportant each service characteristic is:”
IMPORTANT UNIMPORTANT
Fast, reliable repair
Service at my location
Maintenance by manufacturer
Knowledgeable technicians
Notification of upgrades
Service contract after warranty 42

43. Stapel Scales
Stapel scales is used as an alternative to the semantic differential, especially when it is difficult to find bipolar adjectives that match the investigative question.
受測者選出一個數字來描述態度主題的特性「若描述愈正確，正值愈大；同樣地，當描述愈不正確，就選擇愈大的負值。 43

44. Constant-sum scale
A scale that helps the researcher discover proportions is the constant-sum scale.
The participant allocates point to more than one attribute or property indicant, such that they total a constant sum, usually 100 or 10.
You have 100 points to distribute among the following characteristics of the Dallas Steakhouse Indicate the relative importance of each attribute:
____Food Quality
____Atmosphere
____Service
____Price
100 TOTAL

45. Graphic Rating Scales
it was originally created to enable researchers to discern fine differences.
They are instructed to mark their response at any point along a continuum.
Usually, the score is a measure of length from either endpoint.
Never 　 X Always

46. Ranking Scales Paired-comparison scale Forced ranking scale
Comparative scale

47. Paired-Comparison Scale
paired-comparison scale, the participant can express attitudes unambiguously by choosing between two objects.
The number of judgments required in a paired comparison is [(n)(n-1)/2], where n is the number of stimuli or objects to be judged.

48. Forced Ranking Scale
It lists attributes that are ranked relative to each other.
This method is faster than paired comparisons and is usually easier and more motivating to the participant.

49. Comparative scale
This calls for a standard by which other programs, processes, brands, point-of –sale promotions, or people can be compared. 49

50. Sorting
Q-sorts

51. Q-sort
Q-sorts require sorting of a deck of cards into piles that represent points along a continuum.
The participant groups the cards based on his response to the concept written on the card.
最左邊的一堆代表對其概念陳述是「非常有價值」、「贊同」、「同意」之類
最右邊一堆則代表最不贊同的卡片。
分類的目的是取得受測者對態度主體表達出的態度概念，並比較受測者之間的關係。
此項技術可用在描述產品、服務、行為意圖以及許多其他的應用 51

52. Cumulative Scales
Total scores on cumulative scales have the same meaning.
Given a person’s total score, it is possible to estimate which items were answered positively and negatively.

53. * X = agree; __ = disagree.
Cumulative Scales
Scalogram analysis is a procedure for determining whether a set of items forms a unidimensional scale.
Item
Participant Score 2 4 1 3 X __
* X = agree; __ = disagree.
所謂「單一構面」是指受訪者對項目所反應的態度，均集中在某一方向上
在量表圖中，項目從左到右，代表從最極端到最不極端。
若每同意一項會得一分，則總分四分代表同意所有陳述，也是最贊同的態度。
得三分者應該是不同意第二項，但同意其他三項，依此類推。
根據量表圖理論，這種型態證實可以測量所有的內容。 53

54. Thanks for listening