2. Estuaries Estuaries are wetlands formed where rivers meet the sea.
Estuaries contain a mixture of fresh and salt water, and are affected by the ocean tides.
As the two bodies meet, currents form and cause mineral rich mud with many nutrients to fall to the bottom making in available to producers.
Estuaries are very productive because they constantly receive nutrients from the river and ocean while the surrounding land protects the estuaries from the harsh force of ocean waves.

3. Estuaries

4. Estuaries Primary producers include plants, algae, and bacteria.
In estuary food webs, most primary production is not consumed by herbivores. Instead, much of that organic material enters the food web as detritus.
Detritus is made up of tiny pieces of organic material that provide food for organisms at the base of the estuary's food web.

5. Plants and Animals of Estuaries
Estuaries support many marine organisms because they receive plenty of light for photosynthesis and plenty of nutrients for plants and animals.
The light and nutrients support large populations of rooted plants as well as plankton. Plankton in turn provide food for fish, which can then be eaten by larger animals such as dolphins.
Oysters and clams live anchored to rocks and feed by filtering plankton from the water.

6. Plants and Animals of Estuaries
Organisms that live in estuaries are able to tolerate variations in salinity because the salt content of the water varies as fresh water and salt water mix when tides go in and out.
Estuaries also proved protected harbors, access to the ocean, and connection to rivers. As a result, many of the largest ports have been built on estuaries.
Six of the ten largest urban areas, including New York have been built on estuaries.

7. Threats to Estuaries
Estuaries that exist in populated areas were often used as places to dump waste. Estuaries filled with waste could then be used as building sites.
The pollutants that damage estuaries include sewage, pesticides, fertilizers, and toxic chemicals.
Most of these pollutants break down over time, but estuaries cannot cope with the amounts produced by dense human populations.

8. Estuaries
Salt marshes are temperate-zone estuaries dominated by salt-tolerant grasses above the low-tide line, sedges and by seagrasses under water that have adapted to continual and period regions.
Salt marshes occur in estuaries along seacoasts in the temperate zone and the subarctic regions.
Supports a community of clams, fish, aquatic birds, crabs and shrimp.
Absorb pollutants and help protect inland areas.

9. Estuaries
Mangrove swamps are coastal wetlands that occur in bays and estuaries across tropical regions, including southern Florida and Hawaii.
The dominant plants are salt-tolerant trees, called mangroves, with seagrasses common below the low-tide line.
Help protect the coastline from erosion and reduce the damage from storms. Home to about 2,000 species of animals.
Have been filled with waste and destroyed in many parts of the world.

10. Bellringer

11. Marine Ecosystems
Marine ecosystems are located mainly in coastal areas and in the open ocean.
Organisms that live in coastal areas adapt to changes in water level and salinity.
Organisms that live in the open ocean adapt to changes in temperature and the amount of sunlight and nutrients available.

12. Marine Ecosystems Marine Ecosystems
The well-lit upper layer of the ocean is known as the photic zone.
Algae and other producers can grow only in this thin surface layer.

13. Marine Ecosystems
Below the photic zone is the aphotic zone, which is permanently dark.
Chemosynthetic autotrophs are the only producers that can survive in the aphotic zone.

14. Marine Ecosystems
In addition to the division between photic and aphotic zones, marine biologists divide the ocean into zones based on the depth and distance from shore:
the intertidal zone
the coastal ocean
the open ocean

15. Marine Ecosystems Photic zone Land Intertidal zone 200 m 1,000 m
Coastal
ocean
Open
ocean
4,000 m
Aphotic zone
Benthic zone
6,000 m
The ocean can be divided into zones based on light penetration and into zones based on depth and the distance from shore. Each zone contains a characteristic assemblage of organisms.
Ocean
trench
Continental slope and continental rise
10,000 m
Continental
shelf
Abyssal
plain
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16. Coastal Wetlands
Coastal land areas that are covered by salt water for all or part of the time are known as coastal wetlands.
Coastal wetlands provide habitat and nesting areas for many fish and wildlife.
They also absorb excess rain, which protects them from flooding, they filter out pollutants and sediments, and they proved recreational areas for boating, fishing, and hunting.

17. Marine Ecosystems Intertidal Zone
Organisms that live in the intertidal zone are exposed to regular and extreme changes in their surroundings.
Competition among organisms in the rocky intertidal zone often leads to zonation, the prominent arrangement of organisms in a particular habitat in horizontal bands.

18. Rocky and Sandy Shores
Rocky shores have many more plants and animals than sandy shores do because the rocks provide anchorage for seaweed that animals can live on.
Sandy shores dry out when the tide goes out, and many organisms that live between sand grains eat the plankton left stranded on the sand.
A Barrier island is a long ridge of sand or narrow island that lies parallel to the shore and helps protect the mainland.

19. Marine Ecosystems Coastal Ocean
The coastal ocean extends from the low-tide mark to the outer edge of the continental shelf.
It falls within the photic zone, and photosynthesis occurs throughout its depth (up to 100 m).
The coastal ocean is often rich in plankton and many other organisms.

20. Marine Ecosystems
Kelp forests are named for their dominant organism, a giant brown alga. Kelp forests are one of the most productive coastal ocean communities.
Kelp forests support a complex food web.

21. Coral Reefs
Coral reefs, found in tropical coastal waters, are named for the coral animals whose calcium carbonate skeletons make up their primary structure.
Thousands of species of plants and animals live in the cracks and crevices of coral reefs, which make them among the most diverse ecosystems on Earth.
Corals are predators that use stinging tentacle to capture small animals that get close to the reef.
Reef-building corals grow with the help of algae that live symbiotically within their tissues.

22. Coral Reefs
Coral reefs are limestone ridges found in tropical climates and composed of coral fragments that are deposited around organic remains.
Thousands of species of plants and animals live in the cracks and crevices of coral reefs, which makes coral reefs among the most diverse ecosystems on Earth.
Corals are predators that use stinging tentacles to capture small animals, such as zooplankton, that float or swim close to the reef.

23. Coral Reefs
Corals live only in clear, warm salt water where there is enough light for photosynthesis.

24. Disappearing Coral Reefs
Coral reefs are productive ecosystems, but they are also very fragile.
If the water surrounding a reef is too hot or too cold, or if fresh water drains into the water surrounding the coral, the coral may die.
If the water is too muddy, polluted, or too high in nutrients, the algae that live within the corals will either die or grow out control. If the algae grows out of control, it may kill the corals.

25. Disappearing Coral Reefs
Oil spills, sewage, pesticides, and silt runoff have also been linked to coral-reef destruction.
Overfishing can devastate fish populations, upsetting the balance of the reef’s ecosystem.
A coral reef grows very slowly, and it may not be able to repair itself after chunks of coral are destroyed by careless divers, ships dropping anchor, fisheries, shipwrecks, and people breaking off pieces for decorative items or building materials.

26. Marine Ecosystems Open Ocean
The open ocean, the oceanic zone, extends from the edge of the continental shelf outward.
It is the largest marine zone.
Most of the photosynthetic activity on Earth occurs in the photic zone of the open ocean by the smallest producers.

27. Marine Ecosystems
Fishes of all shapes and sizes dominate the open ocean.
Marine mammals live there but must stay close to the surface to breathe.

28. Plants and Animals of Oceans
In the open ocean, phytoplankton grow only in areas where there is enough light and nutrients, resulting in one of the least productive of all ecosystems.
The sea’s smallest herbivores are zooplankton, including jellyfish and tiny shrimp,which live near the surface with the phytoplankton they eat.
Fish feed on the plankton as do marine mammals such as whales.

29. Plants and Animals of Oceans
The depths of the ocean are very dark, so most food at the ocean floor consists of dead organisms that fall from the surface.
Decomposers, filter feeders, and the organisms that eat them live in the deep areas of the ocean.
Overall, the types of organisms that may be found in the layers of the ocean at various depths is dependent on available sunlight.

30. Plants and Animals of Oceans

31. Marine Ecosystems Benthic Zone
The ocean floor contains organisms that live attached to or near the bottom.
These organisms are called benthos. The ocean floor is called the benthic zone.

32. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall
Marine Ecosystems
This zone extends horizontally along the ocean floor from the coastal ocean through the open ocean.
Benthic ecosystems often depend on food from organisms that grow in the photic zone.
Chemosynthetic primary producers support life without light near deep-sea vents.
Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

33. Threats to the Oceans
The oceans are steadily becoming more polluted. Runoff from fertilized fields and industrial waste and sewage being discharged into rivers are major sources of ocean pollution.
Overfishing and certain fishing methods are also destroying some fish populations. Marine mammals can get caught and drown in the nets.
Although it is illegal, some ships discard fishing lines into the ocean where they can strangle and kill fish and seals.

34. Arctic and Antarctic Ecosystems
The Arctic Ocean is rich in nutrients from the surrounding landmasses and supports large populations of plankton, which feed a diversity of fish in the open water and under the ice.
These fish are food for ocean birds, whales The arctic ecosystems at the North and South Poles depend on marine ecosystems because nearly all the food comes from the ocean.
Fish and seals then provide food for polar bears and people on land.

35. Arctic and Antarctic Ecosystems
The Antarctic is the only continent never colonized by humans. It is governed by an international commission and is used mainly for research.
Even during the summer, only a few plants grow at the edges of the continent.
So, as in the Arctic, plankton form the basis of the Antarctic food web, nourishing large numbers of fish, whales, and birds such as penguins.