1. COMMERCIAL BANK OPERATIONS
CHAPTER 16
COMMERCIAL BANK OPERATIONS

2. The Development of Modern Banking
In the middle ages, metalsmiths performed a safekeeping function and issued depository receipts as proof of ownership.
Eventually, standardized receipts were used as a medium of exchange.
Goldsmiths began to loan out some of the gold coins they were holding, keeping only a fraction of the coins that were on deposit. This was the beginning of fractional reserve banking.

3. The Development of Modern Banking (concluded)
Goldsmiths began to loan standardized receipts rather than gold coins. These goldsmiths eventually became known as banks and their standardized receipts became known as banknotes.
The last step necessary for the development of modern banking was the evolution of demand deposits -- the ability to write an order to the bank to transfer banknotes.

4. An Overview of the Banking Industry Today
The commercial banking industry is comprised of less than 9,000 banks. The number of banks has declined from a peak of 15,000 in 1980.
Commercial banks' geographic expansion has been constrained by state and federal banking legislation, but these constraints have been almost eliminated.
Consequently, while the number of banks has declined, the total number of bank branches has grown to about 70,000.

5. An Overview of the Banking Industry Today (continued)
After the 1950s the number of banks and branches increased until the late 1980s. With the beginning of interstate banking and the emergence of electronic banking, the number of banks began declining. The number of branches per bank, however, continues increasing.
Source: FDIC Statistics on Banking.

6. An Overview of the Banking Industry Today (concluded)
The decline in the number of banks can be attributed to the rapid pace of consolidation in the industry.
Large banks dominate asset and deposit holdings in the industry.

7. Bank Licensure Charters Bank Licenses from two sources
Federal Charters – National Banks
OCC
State Charters – State Banks
State Banking Authorities

8. Bank Sources of Funds -- Liabilities and Capital
Demand deposits accounts (DDA) represent funds transferable on the presentation of a check written by a customer.
Savings Accounts -- Traditional nontransaction bank deposits.
Certificates of Deposit -- Deposit contracts issued with varied names for a specific period of time. The largest category of bank deposits.
Borrowed Funds -- Nondeposit, uninsured sources of funds. (from other banks)

9. Bank Sources of Funds -- Liabilities and Capital (continued)
Capital Notes and Bonds -- Nondeposit, noninsured, subordinated long-term notes and bonds.
Bank Capital Accounts
a source of funds.
an equity base for deposits.
a residual, at risk source of funds from shareholders that is used to absorb losses and protect depositors.

10. Bank Sources of Funds -- Liabilities and Capital (concluded)
Source: FDIC Statistics on Banking.

11. Assets of Commercial Banks (1998)
Source: FDIC, Statistics on Banking, September 30, 1998.

12. Uses of Funds -- Bank Assets
Cash assets
Federal Funds sold represent excess reserves sold to other banks for a short period of time.
Bank investments provide income and liquidity.
U.S. Treasury securities offer safety, liquidity, collateral, and income.
U.S. government agency securities provide safety and income.
Municipal securities provide income and a tax shield.

13. Bank loans
Loans are generally more risky than the investment portfolio.
Bank loans consist of promissory notes -- a financial asset similar to securities.
Banks make fixed rate or floating rate loans.
Many loans are secured by collateral; others are unsecured.

14. Commercial and industrial loans represent the major loan category of banks.
Bridge loans -- a business financing agreement with repayment coming from the completion of the agreement.
Seasonal loans -- financing of varying working capital needs over a year with repayment coming from the reduction in working capital.
Long-term asset loans -- financing equipment over several years with repayment coming from future profits and cash flows of the borrower.

15. Other Loans
Loans to depository institutions -- loans to respondent banks, S&Ls, and foreign banks.
Real estate loans -- fixed or variable rate long-term loans
residential mortgage loans
commercial and industrial loans

16. Other Loans (concluded)
Consumer loans to individuals
most are paid back in installments
includes credit card and purchase credit
Bank Credit Cards -- credit extended to consumer at the time of purchase and/or cash advance:
once local, credit card networks are now worldwide
bank earns fees from annual fee, merchant discount and interest on revolving credit balances

17. The prime rate is the commercial loan rate posted by banks.
Traditionally, most loans were tied to the prime rate, but today other market rates such as LIBOR, Treasury or CD rates are used as loan pricing reference rates.
The prime rate remains a popular media indicator of changing credit conditions.
The prime rate lags or follows market rates.

18. Base Rate Loan Pricing
Most banks use a base rate of interest as a markup base for loan rates.
The base rate may be the prime rate, the Federal Funds rate, LIBOR, or the Treasury rate and is expected to cover the following:
the cost of funds of the bank.
the bank's administrative costs
a fair return to the bank shareholders

19. Base Rate Loan Pricing Factors
an upward adjustment from prime for default risk.
an adjustment for term to maturity.
an adjustment for competitive factors.

20. Match-funding Loan Pricing
The loan rate is determined by adding a spread to the deposit cost to cover administrative costs, default risk, and a competitive return to bank shareholders.
By matching the maturities of sources and uses, changing market interest rates are less likely to affect bank earnings.

21. Analysis of Loan Credit Risk: The 5 C’s of Credit
character -- willingness to pay.
capacity -- cash flow.
capital -- wealth.
collateral -- pledged assets.
conditions -- current economic conditions.

22. Fee-Based Services
Fee-based services have become important sources of bank revenue.
Correspondent banking involves the sale of bank services to other banks and institutions.
Bank leasing is an important type of credit service. (Nationsrent)
Trust operations involve the bank acting in a fiduciary capacity for customers.

23. Fee-Based Services (continued)
Investment products such as brokerage services and mutual funds are relatively new, but increasingly important sources of fee income.
Banks are allowed to market certain types of Insurance products, such as annuities.

24. Off-balance Sheet Banking
Off-balance-sheet activities are fee-based activities that give rise to contingent assets and liabilities.

25. Off-balance Sheet Banking (continued)
Loan commitments enable lender and borrower to plan future cash flows.
A line of credit is an informal agreement between the bank and customer to lend up to a maximum amount.
A term loan is an amortized payment loan agreement for a period usually exceeding a year.
A revolving credit is a formal agreement to lend a maximum amount for a period of time, usually greater than one year.

26. Off-balance Sheet Banking (continued)
Letters of credit
A commercial letter of credit involves a bank guaranteeing payment for goods in a commercial transaction.
A standby letter of credit (SLC) is a contingent liability whereby the bank guarantees the terms and contract of a customer.

27. Off-balance Sheet Banking (continued)
Loan brokerage involves the origination and sale of loans. The bank earns a fee for origination and servicing. The lending is provided by other direct or indirect investors.
Derivative securities such as interest rate and currency forwards, futures, options, and swaps are an increasingly important part of bank’s off-balance-sheet commitments.

28. Off-balance Sheet Activities (1998)
Source: FDIC, Statistics on Banking, September 30, 1998.

29. Securitization
Mortgage, auto or credit card loans are pooled together in a trust arrangement.
Securities, called certificates, are sold to individual and institutional investors.
The cash flow collections from the loans are forwarded to the trust and investors.

30. Securitization (concluded)
The bank earns loan origination fees, perhaps underwriting fees, and loan servicing fees, and the funds raised by the securitization are used to originate more loans.
Securitizing loans enables the bank to generate fees without added bank equity capital, required reserves (no funding needed), and deposit insurance premiums.

31. The Structure of a Typical Asset Securitization

32. Bank Holding Companies
The bank holding company is the major form of organization for banks in the United States and was used:
To achieve geographic expansion.
To offer traditional nonbanking financial services.
To reduce their tax burden.
The 1994 Riegle-Neal Interstate Banking and Branching Efficiency Act allowed banks to acquire banks in other states.

33. Bank Holding Companies (concluded)
Bank Holding Companies were first regulated under the Bank Holding Company Act of 1956, with major amendments made in 1970 to include one-bank holding companies under the definition of a bank holding company.
There was a concern about concentrated economic power and concern that troubled bank holding companies could undermine the confidence in commercial banks.
The Federal Reserve regulates bank holding companies.