1. THEORIES OF THE MEDIA AND DEMOCRACY
Print and Modernity
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

2. Review: The Historical Perspective: Print
Michelle Martin: in the early stages of the transition between oral and written cultures we can see that the change in the form of communication was not only related to economic factors, but also to political factors
EG: the development of the book as a mass medium waited until:
paper from wood technologies was cheaper then sheep or calfskin,
the state began to require written and signed copies of contracts;
education in writing and reading began to spread ( literacy)
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

3. Modern Epoch Cont’d Institutions:
Right to Vote, Freedom of speech, elections, the mass media
Associated with rise of nation state and organization of political boundaries
Wider dissemination of communication to masses as well as elites
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

4. Narrative of the Development of Newspapers
a progress from patronage, to partisan, to penny press to the ‘golden age of the newspaper’ as it evolved into a more or less independent, non-partisan, and socially responsible commercial press of today ( Hackett and Zhao:16)
What is overlooked: omits the enlightenment legacy and role of labour & capital
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

5. State Patronage
After Gutenberg, States began to license guilds and typographers
Pay them for publications/in role of Patron and Censor
Pre and post publication censorship was customary
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

6. The Emergence of the Bourgeoisie
Note: the profession of author was born of printing and so was the concept of copyright as legal protection for mental labour ( Martin: 13-14)
As costs of technology fall, and literacy spreads, means of printing more widely available
Typographers, editors and other middle class owners of newspapers emerge
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

7. The Era of the Partisan Press
These newspaper owners become allied with the emerging middle classes challenging royalty
Factions or parties emerge, and provide income to newspaper owners
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

8. Penny Press
Newspaper publishers soon realize that neither the state or loyal party subscriber support is enough
Audiences ( including local businesses) need economic news on the countries buying their resources
Early newspapers, in fact, formed alliances with telegraphs so their content becomes central to economic trading and distribution of goods
Businesses start to pay newspapers to advertise their goods
Media become central to the spread of industry and business
To attract larger audiences, costs of subscriptions are kept low and advertisers begin to pay for more than 70% of the cost of production
Advertising allows greater ‘editorial independence’ in theory to emerge from the Ruler, State or Party
Theory of “Free Press” emerges
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

9. Contemporary Commercial Press
Is transition of control from Ruler, to Political Party to Business? ( Chomsky and Herman)
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

10. Newspapers and the Rise of Democracy in Canada
( from colonial dependents to commercial independence)
Earliest colonial papers ( Halifax) in late 1700s were licenced by the British Crown in the colonies
Given news from the Imperial Country and local Lieutenant Governor ( so served as agent for Crown)
Slowly, allied with political parties ( early 1800s) some of them republican pressing for:
No taxation without representation
Representation by population ( whig and tory parties)
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

11. From Colonial to Independent Partisan Press
Party papers ( sometime called factional papers) took money from loyalists and resisted pre publication censorship
Covered the rebellion of 1839 in Lower and Upper Canada
One editor: Etienne Parent of the Le Canadien jailed
Famous Case: Joseph Howe, Nova Scotia 1835 ( read Kesterton’s History of Journalism In Canada, page 20-22)
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

12. Joseph Howe Case A United Empire Loyalist who fled to Halifax
Became Postmaster General, then King’s Printer
Bought the NovaScotian
Began to report on the Government
In 1835 accused it of Corruption and was charged with Libel
Defended himself and the principle of free speech passionately and was acquitted
Led the campaign for responsible government and won in 1848
Opposed Confederation, but then became member of Sir John A’s Cabinet
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

13. The Transition to Independent Commercial Press
Integral in covering Confederation in 1867 ( Globe and Mail roots back to here in various forms)
But owners find that more money can be made from third parties: subscribers today pay less than 30% of a paper’s costs, and businesses pay ads to cover the rest
With financial independence from the State and Parties came the need for new theories about what role the press could play
Canada endebted to European and US theories of the role of the press
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

14. Role of the Mass Media in Political Modernization
The Enlightenment places a value on Reason
Individual’s must acquire information and knowledge to exercise that reason
The Mass Media provide that information, and assist in its distribution to Individuals
Individuals must also decide the terms and conditions under which they will cede individual freedoms for the benefits of living in a society
Political democratization evolves from feudal to authoritarian to democratic states ( but unevenly over time)
Other rival models: social democracy and communism arise to explain these
The Mass Media evolve to express, represent and manufacture that consensus over the rules of political engagement
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

15. History of Democracy
Tied to Political Ferment since the 1700s: detachment from elite, monarchical, religious or oligarchic rule a struggle for over 100 years in Canada.
From Divine Right to Consent of the Governed as organizing philosophy
Newspapers played a role in advancing representative democracy after 1807
Both Actor and Reporter in the struggle to achieve relative autonomy from the monarchy and imperial country of Britain
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

16. Theories of the Media and Democracy: Ideology and the Media
What’s the Big Idea?
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

17. Objectives of this lecture
To introduce key concepts:
ideology,
democracy
To introduce normative theories of the press
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

18. STUDY QUESTIONS FOR THIS WEEK
What is the libertarian theory of the press?
What would be its opposite?
Be sure you understand the concept of
Ideology
Identify four areas where classical liberalism and reform liberalism differ
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

19. Ideology
An ideology is a value or belief system that is accepted as fact or truth by some group. It is composed of sets of attitudes towards the various institutions and processes of society. It provides the believer with a picture of the world as it is and as it should be ( emphasis added) and, in doing so, it organizes the tremendous complexity of the world into something fairly simple and understandable…. An ideology must be more or less connected set of beliefs that provide the believer with a fairly thorough picture of the world
Custom Courseware ( page 76)
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

20. Key Attributes CONSENSUAL MORAL
Accepted by large numbers and passed on in the normal channels of cultural transmission
MORAL
Includes beliefs about how people should act and what they should consider right or wrong
SIMPLIFIED
Reduces complexity.
4. SYSTEMATIC
More or less coherent ( courseware 77)
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

21. The Study of Ideology
A system of ideas or way of thinking about how to relate politics and society
Ideas in action
May be consensual, or conflictual
Unitary: where one culture is dominant, or Plural: minority
Ideologies define what we take as commonsense, as moral ‘telos’ or goal
They rationalize why we choose to live together in a society, and how we choose to organize the power in that society
They may also rationalize violent or peaceful revolution
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

22. Secularism
Conceives of religion as a doctrine of private and personal belief
Establishes religion as private, and protecting freedom of religion commensurate with speech
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

23. Principal Secular Ideologies
Liberalism
Conservatism
Socialism
Nationalism
Also: Democracy: especially the variant Liberal Democracy
Later forms: Feminism,Environmentalism
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

24. Liberalism From the world liber meaning free
The absence of coercion
Grew out of a tradition of thinkers:
Locke, Smith, Hume, Jefferson
Humanistic: that is human centred
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

25. Main Principles of Liberalism
Personal freedom ( absence from coercion)
Limited Government
Equality of Right
Consent of the Governed ( page 81 in courseware)
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

26. Historical Periods of Liberalism
19th century, persisting today: classical liberalism or libertarianism
Late 20th: reform or social welfare liberalism
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

27. Classical versus Reform Liberalism
Freedom from state
Limited government
Equality of rules
Rule of Law
Consent of the governed ( property or informed consent)
Economic Laissez-faireism
Freedom for enjoyment, personal well being
Positive government
Equality of outcome
Rule of law must imply Equity
Consent of all, with no special status
Economic redistribution
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

28. Classical Liberalism A wide ambit for individualism
The individual has the power of doing whatever does not injure another…
the natural right of man has no other limit than those which are necessary to secure to every other man the right to free exercise…( custom courseware, 96)
Classical liberalism theory arose out of the struggle for democracy in England, France and the US
A minimalist model of infringements on individualism
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

29. Reform Liberalism TH Green:
When we speak of freedom, we should consider carefully what we mean by it.
We do not mean merely freedom from restraint or compulsion, we mean a positive power or capacity of doing something worth doing or enjoying, … in common with others.
The emergence of the ideas of the common good, public interest, social welfare
Implies governments may act to curtail individual liberties for the common good under certain conditions
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

30. Democracy
An ideology
A system of ideas about political organization of a demos: ( greek: peoples) and kratos ( rule)
Liberal democracy tied to ideology of liberalism and capitalism as its economic expression
Literally and most simply: Rule by the People
Core assumptions:
Reflect the key ideas of the enlightenment:
Turn on the centrality of the idea of individual autonomy AND balancing the collective good
Establishes a set of rules where individual autonomy may be limited for the collective good ( and vice versa)
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

31. Key Features of Modern Democracies
Elections of representatives to govern by majority
By voters consisting of entire adult population
Whose votes carry equal weight
Who are allowed to vote in secret without coercion
For Limited Terms: accountable to re-election or rejection
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

32. Democracy around the World
Now Over 180 democracies:
Democracy has become the dominant form of political organizations among nation states
Dominance is less than 100 years old and fragile
Just over half the world’s population lives in a democratic state: yet fewer than 50 countries offer a relatively free press ( with less than one-quarter of the world’s population)
Right to vote did not become universal in most Western democracies until after 2nd World War
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

33. Myths and Reality Myth: there is one form of democracy
Reality: 311 different definitions of democracy in the study of political communication; at least eight different historical models of democracy
Conclusion: democracy is culturally-bounded
Modern Democracies sharply vary in their protections of minorities from majorities
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

34. Press and Democracy around the World
media played role in rise of modern nation state, emergence of democracies, Fall of Berlin Wall, fall of communism, fall of Milosevic in Serbia– are media playing a roll in beating back fundamentalist Islamic militantism? Or its protection ( Al Jazeera)?
creating an independent media is an important communication goal in Eastern Europe, South Africa and other regimes
But, most countries choose a different model than the Western one of a free press: why?
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

35. Normative Theories of the Media
A type of theory, or strain of ideology, which describes the ideal way for media systems to be structured and operated
Normative: of or establishing a norm; customary behavior; a standard or pattern or type of preferred behavior
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

36. Four Theories of the Press
Libertarian
Social Responsibility
Authoritarian
Development/Communist
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

37. Authoritarian Theory The media are a tool of the authority
Involve a concentration of power among rulers
A range of Authoritarian Regimes:
‘benign’ kings/rulers: Sauds in Saudi Arabia
Military dictatorships
One party states
Dictators/ Repressive Tyrants
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

38. Authoritarian Views
hold that the ruling class is more discerning: rabble must be contained
criticism and public dissent is not tolerated if it jeapardizes social cohesion, stability, economic growth or the common good
press may be licensed: censorship before publication is prevalent
criticizing government programs undermines the peace
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

39. Sanctions of Authoritarian Regimes
Media become a part of the apparatus of the State\dominant military , economic or political class.
associated with totalitarianism: forms of military, royal dictatorship *
reporters and citizens may be jailed: all dissent is illegitimate ( range of dissent tolerated may vary)
still present in some developing countries in Asia, Middle East and Latin America and Africa
Authoritarianism:
Can have authoritarian market systems ( eg Korea, etc)
Can have more closed, authoritarian democratic governments : not a theory, but describing a set of practices
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

40. Key Characteristics of Media in Authoritarian Regimes
Strict licensing
Prior restraint on content
Post censorship
Threat of jailing, or capital punishment on editors, journalists and readers
NO independence of journalists/ professionals
May use tax or other powers of economic sanction
China: withdrawal of certain press freedoms in Hong Kong
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

41. Principles of Authoritarian Press Theory
Media should do nothing to undermine established authority
Media are ultimately subordinate
Media should avoid offence to dominant moral and political values
Censorship is justified to support these principles
Unacceptable attacks on authority, deviations from official policy, offences against moral codes should be criminal offences
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

42. Libertarian Theory
A theory that the press are an extension of the individual’s absolute right to freedom of the expression
Derived from the philosophy of ‘liberalism’ in the history of ideas
At its most extreme: no role for the state
Makes no distinction between individual’s right to freedom of expression or a private media corporation’s right to freedom of expression: irony: corporations have most often spoken up on individual freedoms
Protects security of private ownership
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

43. Libertarian II Related to classical liberalism theory
Classical Liberalism has a romantic view of the individual as good, rational and completely able to distinguish good from bad
Like one of its theorists: Milton’s Aereopagitica: believes that debate is always fair and that good and truthful arguments win out over lies and deceit
This is the democratic ideal of the ‘marketplace of ideas’.
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

44. Libertarian iv Freedom from state intervention is the central slogan
Media are seen as a commodity like any other: privately owned, in pursuit of profit , subject only to the ‘invisible hand’ of the market
Freedom of press is absolute: that is, press may promote ideas of their own choosing– citizens are able to make enlightened choices of media tailored to their own beliefs
Many vestiges of 19th century libertarian ideology remain in the newspaper industry; modern platforms of Alliance and Libertarian parties, Fraser Institute in review of media
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

45. Libertarian V
Freedom from State Intervention also implies an important independent role for the Press
The Press function as a Watchdog on the abuse of power by Government: guarding the rights of individuals so they are not deformed.
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

46. Principles of the Libertarian Model
Publication should be free of prior restraint from any party
Publication should be open without a license
Attack on any party ( save private individuals or state security) should not be punishable even after the event
No compulsion to publish anything
Publication of error is protected equally with truth
No restriction on access to information
No restriction across frontiers
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

47. Problems with the Libertarian Model
historically, costs of entry to publishing rose
competition was not free: oligopoly and monopolies arose
shocks of Great Depression challenged this consensus
model of economic rationality underpinning behavior began to unravel (Freud, Resistance etc)
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

48. Problems/ Libertarian View
central analytic questions:
does a system of private ownership promote diversity of expression and high standards of journalism?
Are citizens “ enlightened” enough to make good choices?
How well does an exclusively market dominated media system media serve the public?
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

49. Libertarian Model Closest analogy to print media ( books, newspapers)
Closest country analogy is US
Only time these views are suspended is in time of war/extraordinary upheaval
In times of WAR, state may license, censor or otherwise suppress news “ in the interests of national security” even for classical libertarians
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

50. Social Responsibility
Focuses less on the individual than the balance with the welfare of society
Concerned about equality ( where overall benefit of the many may override the individual)
Sees a more extensive role for the State
Related to reform liberalism and rise of electronic era
Central belief is that the media are not a commodity like any other: central to democratic expression; therefore a public good
Possibly, a natural resource like air or water
The metaphor: democracy’s oxygen
Democracy must protect the interests of the majority against the harm of extreme individual freedoms; but also promote diversity of views, protect rights of minorities
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

51. Social Responsibility 2
Freedom For the pursuit of the democratic social good is the central slogan ( not freedom from)
Associated with the rise and sunset of the welfare state: protection of basic economic and cultural freedoms
Freedom of the press is not absolute: it is responsible to society
Regulation may be necessary in the social interest ( and especially in case of spectrum scarcity)
Vestiges of the social responsibility model remain in broadcasting media
Generally: social responsibility model applies to radio, TV industries around the world
Internationally, Canada and Europe and some of the Asian countries ( eg Singapore) conform to this view.
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

52. Principles of the Social Responsibility View
Media should accept certain obligations to society
Must set high standards of truth, accuracy, objectivity and balance
In accepting these responsibilities, media should be self-regulating
The media should avoid what ever leads to violence or civil disorder
Media should be pluralist and reflect the diversity of their society, giving access to various points of view and rights of reply
Intervention can be justified to secure the public good
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

53. Key Assumptions of Social Responsibility Models
Must regulate competition to ensure sufficient diversity in market place ( perhaps order sale)
Must create codes of fair treatment by media, and promote ethics and training in journalism
Must protect against flagrant abuses ( false advertising, libel, hate crimes)
Promote public subsidy or public not for profit ownership of media where underrepresented minorities frozen out
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

54. Problems with the Social Responsibility Model
despite efforts to impose it on the newspaper industry in Canada and US, this model has not become prevalent across all media
trend to global free trade and deregulation is undercutting models of social responsibility
now often narrowly interpreted as the industry’s right to develop and regulate their own codes of conduct (self-regulation by professionals)
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

55. Problems Cont’d
private sector in broadcasting, which has represented a so-called ideal type of social responsibility regulation of the media in Canada has not achieved certain democratic or national goals
analytic question: when social responsibility conflicts with the profit motive, what then?
Classic argument: leave it to the educated elites
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

56. Principal Differences
Libertarian Media
State must not intervene
Freedom of expression is absolute
Ideal type: books, newspapers, magazines, also internet
Watchdog Role ( stop abuse)
Social Responsibility Media
State may regulate
To protect undersupply
To protect against harm or offense
To ensure universal access
To promote effective, fair competition
Freedom of Expression is limited only when public interest is at stake
Ideal type: radio or TV Acts
Fourth Estate: ( like legislative, judiciary, executive) may generate policy recommendations
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

57. Critical Theories of the Press
From critical political economy
Marx: in every epoch, the ruling ideas are the ideas of the ruling class ( courseware, normative theories, page 384)
Media are central to the operation of capitalism
they sell goods and services
They carry economic news
They are important for coordinating supply and demand
So essential to economic system, they are controlled by the bourgeoisie, or ruling elites
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

58. Neo-Marxian views Argue oligopoly forecloses diversity
AJ Liebling: Freedom of the Press belongs to those who own one.
That is, the structure of ownership and control if very concentrated in the hands of a few, runs the risk that the gatekeepers may freeze out certain ideas in the desire to maximize profits ( see custom courseware, p. 389 normative theories)
The media become tools to maintain the dominant ideology of capitalist power
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

59. A Marxist Model of the Press
Media should serve and be controlled by workers
Media should serve society by education, and mobilization
Must respond to the people
People have a right, with the worker’s party, to decide when to use censorship before or after the fact
Media should provide a complete picture of society, in accordance with Marxist principles,
Support progressive movements at home and abroad
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

60. The Critical View of Ideology
Ideologies are not only particular ways of seeing or systems of representation ( 393)
They exclude, limit
They set the boundaries on what we are able to understand and what we accept as possible
They are always contested
But a common strategy is to present dominant values as ‘normal’
Marginalize minorities
Working at its best when unseen/unknown
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

61. Conclusions
Normative theories of the press speak to how it ought to work
Correspond to choices made by political elites for different systems
In Canada, Canadians adopt more of a reform liberal/ social responsibility view of the press, like other countries
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

62. Sources
Michelle Martin. Michelle Martin Communication, and Mass Media: Culture, Domination and Opposition. Scarborough: Prentice Hall Allyn and Bacon
Mary Vipond. Mass Media.
Bob Hackett and Yuezhi Zhao. Sustaining democracy? : journalism and the politics of objectivity. Robert A. Hackett and Yuezhi Zhao. Toronto : Garamond Press, 1997
John C. Nerone. Ed. Last Rights: Revisiting Four Theories of the Press. University of Illinois Press
Denis McQuail. Mass Communication Theory: An Introduction. London, Sage, pp
F. Siebert, T. Peterson and W. Schramm. Four Theories of the Press. Urbana: U. of Illinois Press
Spring 2007
CMNS 130

63. Spring 2007
CMNS 130