1. Technological and Environmental Transformations to 600 BCE
Period 1
Technological and Environmental Transformations
to 600 BCE

2. Big Geography and the Peopling of the Earth
Key Concept 1.1
Big Geography and the Peopling of the Earth

3. Origins of Early Humans
Early human development during the Paleolithic Period
Origins in Africa
Hominids
Anatomically modern humans
develop about 150,000 years ago
Begin migrations
The Paleolithic Period is also known as the “Old Stone Age” and is marked by the use of stone tools. The Paleolithic Period lasts from about 2.5 million years ago until about 8,000 BCE. Because the early humans did not possess a written language, our current knowledge of the period is based upon archaeological evidence. Artifacts such as tools, human remains, and cave paintings are some of our only clues to what life was like in this early stage of human history.
Archaeological evidence suggests that the human species originated in Africa and spread out through a series of migrations which ultimately led to the population of the other regions of the Earth.
Ancestors of humans known as hominids began to migrate out of Africa some time around 1.8 million years ago. Other groups such as the Neanderthal began to inhabit Eurasia. Some time around 150,000 years ago, anatomically modern humans emerged in Africa. This group, known as homo sapiens sapiens, also began a series of migrations to inhabit other regions of the world.

4. Lucy ml
The remains seen on the right are known as Lucy. Lucy was an Australopithecus and lived 3.5 million years ago in what is now known as Ethipia. Her face would have been shaped like that of an ape and she stool about 39 inches tall. With a small brain, Lucy did not make her own tools. Her remains, however, reveal that she did walk upright.

5. Settlement of Australia: Approximately 60,000 BCE
Settlement of Eurasia: Approximately 50,000 BCE
Settlement of Americas: Approximately 14,000 BCE

6. Life in the Paleolithic Period
Hunting-foraging
Nomadic
Small groups based on bonds of kinship
Relatively Egalitarian
Adaptation to local environment
Development of stone tools
Use of fire for cooking, warmth, and deterring predators
Paleolithic humans made a living though hunting-foraging. Men would often embark on hunting expeditions to kill large game animals while women often spent their time gathering wild edibles such as nuts, berries, roots, and other wild plants. Much of the diet was provided by women. Because the groups relied upon the natural environment for food, they were unable to stay put for long periods of time. They moved around in search of new food sources. These migrations, combined with the fact that the groups were small in number, helped to prevent abuse of the environment. As the groups moved, the natural environment was able to replenish itself.
Hunter-forager groups were small and were unable to support large populations. Populations were controlled through natural means (infant mortality was high) and through innovative birth control methods. Women would breast feed their children until the child was old enough to be a help to the group. While lactating, the women typically will not conceive again.
Foraging groups were relatively egalitarian and contained minimal social stratification. While status was afforded to the best hunter or wisest elder woman who could locate the right plants, the members of the group were all more or less on equal footing. As a result, women in hunter-forager societies enjoy higher status than those who live in agricultural communities.
Early humans adapted to their environments through the use of stone tools and fire.
Assignment: !Kung excerpt

7. Life in the Paleolithic Period
No written language
Evidence of culture seen in cave paintings, artifacts, and human remains
Evidence of primitive, simple religion
Lack of developed material culture
hunter-foragers did interact with each other and engage in exchange of ideas and goods
Paleolithic humans were unable to keep records due to a lack of written language. Much of what we know about them comes from archaeological remains. Burial remains reveals a belief in some sort of primitive religion.

8. The Neolithic Revolution and Early Agricultural Societies
Key Concept 1.2
The Neolithic Revolution and Early Agricultural Societies

9. The Neolithic Revolution
Neolithic: New Stone Age
Began approx. 10,000 years ago
Use of stone tools for agricultural production
Most likely the result of climate change
Domestication of plant and animal species
See map on page 9 in textbook
First began in the Eastern Mediterranean
As climates began to change at the end of the last Ice Age, humans were forced to once again adapt to their environments. Approximately 10,000 years ago, people began to experiment with agriculture. This period is known as the Neolithic Period or the “New Stone Age”.

10. http://huberb. people. cofc

11. Neolithic Revolution Gradual process and dependent upon the geography
Not all societies develop agriculture
See map on page 9 of textbook.
Agricultural centers emerged in:
Mesopotamia, the Nile River Valley, Sub-Saharan Africa, the Indus River Valley, the Yellow River, Papua New Guinea, Mesoamerica, and the Andes
The Neolithic Revolution developed at different rates depending upon the natural geography and availability of native wildlife. Areas with favorable climate as well as plants and/or animal species suitable for domestication were the first to make the transition. Agriculture developed first in the Eastern Mediterranean and Southwest Asia. Some areas adapted agriculture after exposure to agricultural communities in a process known as cultural diffusion. Other areas, however, developed agriculture independently. For example, the cultivation of rice in Asia and the cultivation of corn in Mesoamerica and potatoes in South America all developed independently.
Areas without a favorable environment did not develop agriculture as quickly. Still others retained their hunter-foraging lifestyle.
Animal domestication is another important element of the Neolithic Revolution. Cattle, dogs, goats, pigs, and sheep were domesticated in the Middle East. Chickens and water buffalo were domesticated in Southern Asia. Horses were domesticated in Central Asia. These animals become critical elements of agricultural societies as they provided food, fuel, clothing, and milk. The Americas were not as plentiful with domesticated animals. The llama in South America was an important pack animal, but it is not as sturdy as “Old World” animals. North America did not contain any native species suitable for domestication.

13. Pastoralism Emerged in grasslands (steppes) Animal husbandry
Central Eurasia and parts of Africa
Animal husbandry
Mobile lifestyle
Wealth measured in livestock
Pastoralism refers to societies that rely upon animal herding as their main form of economic activity. This lifestyle developed in areas where the environment was not suitable for sustained agriculture. The grasslands (steppes) of Central Asia and parts of Africa were common areas of pastoralism. Pastoralists relied upon the herding of animals such as cattle, sheep, goats, etc. The horse was most likely domesticated by nomadic steppe tribes of Central Asia. These groups were largely nomadic and did not form permanent settlements due to their need to move in search of new grazing lands. Because of their nomadic lifestyle, pastoralists often did not accumulate material possessions. Wealth was measured in livestock, unlike the agriculturalists who measured wealth in land.
Their mobile existence make the pastoralists important figures in history. These groups were often critical in the spread of ideas (cultural diffusion) as they moved from one place to another. They will also develop important technologies such as the stirrup, saddle, and chariot. Lastly, these groups often act as invaders as they look upon their “civilized” neighbors with envy. The Huns and Mongols are two of the better known pastoral groups from history. More on these later.

14. Life in Agriculture Communities
Greater degree of complexity and cooperation
More reliable food sources
Population densities increase
Permanent settlements
Religion becomes more complex
Some matrilineal, others patrilineal
Trade developed between and among early agricultural settlements
The rise of agriculture caused human societies to become more complex. Clearing of land, development of water control systems, planting, cultivation, and harvesting required hours of manual labor. Therefore, inhabitants of agricultural communities were forced to rely upon each other and cooperate to get the job(s) done.
Agriculture provided humans with a more reliable food source, which will eventually lead to higher population densities. Permanent settlements developed and people began to develop a sedentary lifestyle. Although food was more readily available, the agriculturalist’s diet was less diversified and less nutritious of their hunter-forager counterparts. Additionally, close contact with animals gave rise to new diseases, which led to a decline in the overall well-being of the societies.
As agriculture expanded, the complexity of human society also increased. Religion began to become more complex and often centered on deities associated with mother nature and fertility. Ancestor veneration became a common theme.
Matrilineal societies traced their heritage through the mother while patrilineal societies traced their heritage through the father.
Communities traded obsidian tools, weapons, pottery, weaved baskets, cloth, and ornaments.

15.
Catal Hoyuk (Chah-tal Her-yerk) is one of the earliest agricultural cities. Located in modern-day Turkey, this city was home to as many as 5,000 people. Different styles of homes and burial sites indicate that some citizens had greater status than others. For example, the wealthy buried their dead with jewelry and tools.

16. Impact on the environment
Dramatic impact on the environment
Erosion
Clearing of forests for farmland
Desertification
Overgrazing of pastureland

17. Impact of Neolithic Revolution
Increase in human population
Increase in disease
Craft specialization
Social Stratification
Patriarchy
Population densities increased due to agricultural surplus. With the rise of population came an increase in disease. Close contact with animals led to the transfer of animal-borne disease to humans. Cities also brought people into closer contact with each other and waste products, which also led to disease.
Agricultural societies are much more complex than their hunter-forager counterparts. Agricultural surpluses made it possible for people to specialize in other tasks. The lower classes were able to produce enough food to feed everyone in the society, which freed others up. Some began to train as warriors to protect the land. Others began to experiment with arts and crafts. Government officials emerged. Religious officials such as priests and/or shaman were valued for their ability to communicate with the gods. Certain jobs were perceived as more important, which gave rise to elites and social stratification. Social stratification also developed in response to perceived wealth. Hunter-gatherers did not often possess “stuff”. The sedentary nature of agricultural life made it possible for people to accumulate possessions and material wealth. Those with more “stuff” and more land were ranked higher than those without.
The status of women declined due to the development of agriculture. In foraging societies, women provided much of the food. In agricultural communities, men began to take on more and more power. Male dominated societies are known as patriarchies.
Assignment: CCOT Essay
Analyze the Changes and Continuities that occur in human society as a result of the Neolithic Revolution.

18. Development of new Technologies
Technological innovations were developed to improve agricultural production, trade, and transportation
Key examples:
Pottery
Plows
Woven textiles
Metallurgy
Wheels and wheeled vehicles
Pottery is one of the most common artifacts found in archaeological sites. Pottery was often decorated with imagery of daily life. In this instance you see a fish indicating that these people relied on fishing for a portion of their diet. Pottery was used for cooking, eating and drinking, storage, and transportation of products. The plow made cultivation easier and increased productivity.

19. Key Concept 1.3
The Development and Interactions of Early Agricultural, Pastoral, and Urban Societies

20. Rise of “Civilization”
Core and foundational civilizations emerged in the following:
Mesopotamia
Egypt
Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa
Shang China
Olmec
Chavin
Egypt developed along the Nile River in North Africa
Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa are the two most important cities of the Indus River Valley in South Asia (India)
The Shang is China’s first confirmed dynasty and was located along the Yellow River.
The Olmec developed in Mesoamerica and the Chavin in Andean South America.

21. Assignment: Comparative Essay
Compare and Contrast the social, political, and economic structure of Mesopotamia and Egypt.

22. Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia was located in the Tigris and Euphrates River Valleys in an area known as the Fertile Crescent in the Middle East. Mesopotamia is often considered the first civilization. Geography made civilization possible, but sometimes difficult for the people of the region. The area is vulnerable to invasion and is prone to natural disasters such as irregular flooding along the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. The volatile geography caused the Mesopotamians to develop a somewhat pessimistic view of religion. The Mesopotamians were polytheistic, meaning that the believed in many gods. The gods were thought to be angry and vengeful, looking for opportunities to punish humans for perceived misdeeds. Whenever a flood came, the gods were thought to be responsible. As a result, the Mesopotamians developed a healthy respect as well as a distrust for their gods.
Mesopotamian society was patriarchal (male dominated) and highly stratified with much of the land being owned by the upper classes. In this period, land was a measure of wealth making those who owned land much more powerful than those who did not. Royalty, nobles, warriors, and priests were at the top of the social pyramid, while commoners were at the bottom. Slavery was common as slaves were needed to help produce food to feed the growing population of the cities.
Mesopotamia was divided into numerous city-states, each with its own government structure. These city-states would compete for control over the region and periodically one would rise up to dominate the others. The Sumerians, Akkadians, and Babylonians were among those who would control the region at various times. Eventually, the site would also become home of two great empires, the Assyrians and the Persians.
Among the notable achievements of the Mesopotamians were their writing system. The Sumerians developed a writing system known as cuneiform, which made use of wedge-shaped characters. The Mesopotamians developed a number system, were well versed in astronomical observation, and developed monumental architecture such as palaces, temples, and ziggurats. Additionally, the Mesopotamian city-state of Babylonia is known for the development of a law code under the leadership of Hammurabi. We will study this law code in more detail as we progress in the class.

24. Egypt
Egypt is located in Northern Africa along the Nile River. Because of its predictable flood patterns, the Nile provides allows for civilization to grow in an otherwise arid and dry environment. Like the Mesopotamians, the Egyptians were also polytheistic and believed in many gods. The Egyptians, however, developed a much more positive view of religion. The afterlife was something to look forward to and prepare for. Hence the need for elaborate burial rituals and tombs such as the pyramids. This optimistic view of the gods is likely due to the fact that the Egyptian geography was much more stable, which meant that the gods must also be stable and trustworthy.
Unlike the Mesopotamians who developed city-states, the Egyptians developed a centralized monarchy centered around a king or pharaoh. The pharaoh was believed to be a descendent of the gods and was, therefore, very powerful. The pharaoh owned all of the land and the government maintained tight control over all aspects of the economy including taxation and trade. Egyptian political history is divided into three major kingdoms (The Old, Middle, and New) with civilization reaching its height during the New Kingdom.
Egyptian society was also patriarchal and stratified. Although slavery was practiced in Egypt, it was not as economically important as most people believe. Egypt was largely rural and had a large peasant population who could farm and produce food for the elites and city-dwellers.
Like the Mesopotamians, the Egyptians made important contributions to history. The Mesopotamians developed a writing system known as hieroglyphics and developed papyrus paper for record-keeping. The Egyptians also developed monumental architecture such as palaces and pyramids.

25. The Pyramids at Giza were constructed between 2550 and 2490 BCE
The Pyramids at Giza were constructed between 2550 and 2490 BCE. The Rosetta Stone allows us to be able to decipher ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics.

26. Indus River Valley Civilization
The Indus River Valley civilization developed in the region that is now modern-day India and Pakistan. Less is known about this civilization due to the fact that their writing system has never been deciphered. The region is largely geographically isolated due to mountains located to the north. However, mountain passes did allow for some contact with other civilizations. One of the most important geographical features for the region is the monsoon wind. The monsoon is a seasonal wind pattern that alternates in a regular pattern. During part of the year, the monsoon wind blows inland from the sea bringing extensive moisture. The result is a wet season with torrential rainfall. The wind patterns then change and blow offshore. The result is a dry season. This wind system eventually becomes a very important factor in Indian Ocean trade.
The two most important cities in this civilization are Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. Both cities were highly developed and organized. They even had sewage systems and primitive indoor plumbing, which was far ahead their times. The people of the region were skilled metal-workers as evidenced by the bronze artifacts unearthed in the cities. Like the other civilizations of the day, bronze served as a status symbol and was often monopolized by the elites of the society.
For reasons that are not entirely known, the region entered into a period of decline. It is possible that natural disasters and ecological changes such as the drying up of rivers were contributing factors. What we do know, however, is that the region was invaded around 1500 BCE by an Indo-European group known as the Aryans who had originated from the area around the Black Sea. The Aryans took advantage of the instability of the region and assumed control. They quickly began to mix with the local culture while also imposing their own cultural ideas. Important developments from this period were the introduction of the caste system. The caste system was originally a system used by the Aryans to organize the people into groups. The result is a highly stratified society in which there is virtually no opportunity for social mobility. This caste system provided the basic structure for Indian society for the next couple thousand years. Another important feature of the Aryan invasion was the development of Vedic religion, which eventually develops into Hinduism, the most important religion in Indian society. We will study both the caste system and Hinduism in more detail as we continue in the course.

27. The image on the top left is an artist rendering of what archaeologists believe Harappa might have looked like.

28. The Yellow River Valley Civilization Shang Dynasty
The Yellow River Valley developed in modern-day China along the Yellow River. Its far east location led China to develop in relative isolation. However, as we study China you will see that there were some notable and important interactions taking place between China and other civilizations located to the west. Early Chinese civilization was made possible due to the cultivation of rice.
Chinese political history is divided into dynasties. Each dynasty was controlled by a ruling family. However, as you will soon see, these dynasties go through periods of ups and downs. As one dynasty grew weak, another would take its place. Periodically, there would also be periods of instability in which no strong dynasty was in control. This ebb and flow of dynasties is the common feature until the fall of the last Chinese Dynasty, the Qing, in Chinese history mentions a dynasty known as the Xia. According to Chinese history, the Xia was China’s first dynasty. However, western historians do not believe that there is enough evidence to determine whether this dynasty ever existed. Some believe it existed only in Chinese myth and legend.
Historians do agree on the existence of the Shang Dynasty. The Shang was a warrior-oriented society ruled by a king. Frequent military campaigns were carried out due to the natural geography of the region. The northern region of China is very vulnerable to invasion by nomadic steppe tribes from Central Asia. This threat of invasion is one of the most common themes in Chinese political and military history. These invasions often result in instability and weaken the dynasties, which often allows for the rise of new political leadership. In fact, most of China’s dynasties were established by people who were not ethnically Chinese, and two (the Yuan and Qing) were established by outright invasion.
Like the other cultures of the day, Shang China was patriarchal. The Chinese developed a society in which family was considered very important. The Chinese family was multi-generational and included veneration of the dead ancestors. The ancestors were seen as a link between the living and the realm of the gods. They were also seen as guardians of the family. Therefore, the Chinese practices rituals to pay tribute to their ancestors. The Chinese developed a polytheistic and animistic religion in which the gods were consulted before any major decision was to be made. The Shang King also acted as a shaman and would consult the gods regularly. These divinations were often carried out on what are now called “oracle bones”. Diviners would ask the gods a question and then take a large piece of bone such as a turtle shell or ox bone. The diviner would poke holes into the bone with a hot rod causing the shell to crack. These cracks were thought to be messages from the gods, which would then be deciphered by the priests and shaman. Much of our knowledge of early Chinese writing is due to the inscriptions found on these ancient oracle bones.
The Shang were accomplished metal-workers and were known for their use of bronze. The Chinese also used jade in their art. Due to their close proximity to the nomadic steppe tribes, the Shang quickly adopt horses and chariot technology.

30.
The Olmec and Chavin are important to the development of Native American cultures due to the fact that they lay the foundations for future cultures such as the Maya, Aztec, and Inca. Unlike the previously discussed civilizations, neither the Olmec nor Chavin developed in River Valleys. The Olmec were centered in Mesoamerica. Much of their culture developed along the coasts of modern-day Mexico and portions of Central America. The climate in this region varies. The tropical climate provides plenty of rainfall, which often results in swampy land. To combat the natural environment, the Olmec used large earthen mounds to elevate their farmlands and cities. The Chavin, on the other hand, developed in the mountainous regions of South America. The geography of the region made for challenges in the development of Andean civilization. To the west of the Andes mountains is a desert (the Atacama), which is one of the world’s driest. To the east of the mountains is the Brazilian rainforest. These geographic features required the Chavin and other Andean civilizations to be highly organized and structured in order to ensure survival. The Chavin, like other Andean civilizations later to come in history, used a clan-based system of labor organization. In essence, the population was divided into groups with each clan assigned an economic function or task. This level of organization made the people productive and helped them to produce enough food to provide for their population.
Both cultures were polytheistic and engaged in various blood-letting rituals to please their gods and ready themselves for war. The Olmec developed a writing system, but the Chavin did not. Instead, the Chavin used a system of ropes with knots, which will later come to be known as quipu. The Inca will also make use of this system for record keeping.

31. The Olmec are known for their construction of these large heads
The Olmec are known for their construction of these large heads. It is believed that these heads are depictions of important figures such as kings. The figure at the bottom is a stone carving from the Olmec. The Olmec seemed to be fascinated with animals such as jaguars, birds of prey, reptiles, etc. There were even myths of shape-shifting warriors who could channel the energy of a certain animal during battle to help ensure his victory.

32. State Building
State: a sovereign political entity which contains a stable population, defined territory, and established government
Control over larger territory, population, and resources
Divine Right
Military
State is a political science term. State is often used today to refer to places such as Texas, California, etc. However, these areas are not technically states because they lack sovereignty. States emerged in the core civilizations. Each had its own territory, population, government, and sovereignty.
State building resulted in much larger communities. Surplus populations could be used for man power to build cities, construct irrigation projects, train in the military, and harvest resources from the environment. As these early states began to acquire more and more territory, they became known as empires. Some of the earlier regions of empire building were in Mesopotamia, Babylonia, and the Nile River Valley.
Rulers of these early states often used “divine right” to legitimize their rule. For example, the Pharaohs of Egypt claimed to be descended from the gods. In ancient China, a theory known as the “Mandate of Heaven” was used to explain the transition from one dynasty to the next. The Mandate claimed that political power came from Tian or Heaven. Tian was a divine force who oversaw the human world. Whenever rulers became corrupt, Tian would revoke their power to rule and a new dynasty would take the place of the old. Divine Right is a common theme in world history and is popular through much of history. Rulers who can claim to be supported by the god(s) can use the faith of the people to ensure their cooperation and support.
The military is another important feature of these early civilizations. In order to expand their territory and gain access to valuable resources, the states must have had a strong military. The importance of the military is seen in the fact that warriors were often among the higher classes of early urban societies.
Assignment: Document 5 (The Mandate of Heaven)

33. Competition and Technology
Competition for land and resources
Geography
Bronze
Iron
Horses
Chariots
Composite bows
As states began to grow in size, they begin to compete with each other for land, resources, and influence. Geography is an important feature in this age of early expansion. Many states were forced to either trade for or engage in conquest to gain access to important resources not readily available within their own borders. Mesopotamia, for example, was abundant in clay deposits, but not in metal ores such as copper or tin. These two metals are used to make bronze. Bronze became an important metal in this early period of human history. Bronze was often a status symbol in the early cultures and was used to make tools, weapons, jewelry, and other important implements. Bronze could also be used to increase agricultural productivity through the casting of bronze axes for clearing land, bronze plows for cultivation, bronze sickles for harvesting. Artisans in early civilizations also had access to bronze hammers, tongs, saws, and drills. Bronze technology gave societies such as Mesopotamia an advantage compared to their neighbors.
Iron was another important development in this early stage of human history. The Hittites were a group of people living in the region of Mesopotamia. The Hittites became a formidable power in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) through the use of iron. Anatolia was rich in iron deposits, which the Hittites learned could be used to make weapons. Iron had advantages over bronze in the fact that it was only one metal while bronze was a combination of copper and tin. Therefore, it was easier to make iron tools. Iron was also stronger than bronze. Tools and weapons made from iron gave groups such as the Hittites an advantage over those without this technology.
One other important technology that impacted this early stage of history was the introduction of the horse and chariot. Because of their mobile lifestyle, pastoralists were often the developers and disseminators of new weapons and modes of technology such as horseback riding, stirrups, saddles, chariots, and composite bows. These technologies provided a distinct advantage in battle. Infantry soldiers on foot could not compete with warriors on horseback armed with bows. The Hyksos are a good example of this technology at work. The Hyksos were group of people who migrated out of present-day Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Israel. The Hyksos had adopted the horse-drawn war chariot and composite bow. The composite bow could be fired from horseback and was allowed for a more powerful shot due to the fact that it was made for a combination of materials such as horn, sinew, and wood. They used these technologies to invade Egypt and seized control of the region around 1640 BCE. This marked the first time that Egypt had fallen under foreign rule. The image on this slide is a depiction of the Hyksos invasion of Egypt. It is important to note, however, that although the Hyksos conquered Egypt, they then chose to assimilate into the existing culture. They began to intermarry with the Egyptians and adopt Egyptian culture thus allowing Egyptian society to continue on.

34. Architecture and Urban Planning
The sedentary nature of agriculture allowed for the rise of civilizations and the development of cities. The early civilizations often used monumental architecture to fulfill many functions. Grand palaces would be used to demonstrate the power of the monarch while tombs such as the pyramids of ancient Egypt provided a final resting place for the great rulers of the civilizations. Temples were constructed to honor and pay tribute to patron deities.
Architecture would also serve a very practical purpose. Early civilizations often constructed defensive walls to protect their cities from invasion while streets and roads were constructed to help facilitate travel. The image in the lower left shows the layout of the city of Harappa.

35. Arts and Artisanship
Elites in early civilizations promoted the development of art and artisanship. Because the civilizations were able to develop an agricultural surplus, there was plenty of food available to feed artisans and craftspeople while they developed their products. Sculpture (example of Chavin sculpture provided) and painting were common. Paintings in Egypt, for example, were often used as wall coverings and decoration for temples, tombs, and palaces. Artisans in early civilizations were also accomplished in the use of bronze, jade, and other precious materials to make tools, decorations, and jewelry.
Weaving of textiles (as seen in the diagram for Egypt) was another common form of art in the early civilizations.

36. Systems of Record Keeping
Writing systems are believed to have emerged out of a need for record keeping. As societies became more complex and civilizations grew, there came about a need to keep formal records. Agricultural surpluses and taxes had to be calculated and recorded. Religion also played a role in the development of writing, especially in the case of ancient China. Either way, most, BUT NOT ALL, early civilizations developed some sort of writing system. The Sumerians in Mesopotamia developed the world’s first writing system when they created a system known as cuneiform.
The ability to read and write (literacy) was extremely low in this early stage of history. Learning the complex writing system took years of study and practice, something that most people could not afford. Therefore, the ability to read and write was monopolized by a very small portion of the society.
With the introduction of writing systems there was also the development of literature. Stories such as The Epic of Gilgamesh provide a window into the culture of the society from which it was created.
Assignment: Document 1 (The Epic of Gilgamesh)

37. Law Codes
As previously mentioned, law codes became essential with the growth of civilization. Laws were used to keep society orderly and provide a system of justice. The best known law code of the time is that of Hammurabi. Hammurabi was the king of Babylon. His law code is an important historic source because it helped to pioneer the idea of justice and rule by law. However, his law code was based upon a system of inequality in which punishments were based upon social status.
Assignment: Document 2 (The Judgments of Hammurabi)

38. Writing systems are believed to have emerged out of a need for record keeping. As societies became more complex and civilizations grew, there came about a need to keep formal records.. Either way, most, BUT NOT ALL, early civilizations developed some sort of writing system. The Sumerians in Mesopotamia developed the world’s first writing system when they created a system known as cuneiform.

39. Law codes became essential with the growth of civilization
Law codes became essential with the growth of civilization. Laws were used to keep society orderly and provide a system of justice. The best known law code of the time is that of Hammurabi. Hammurabi was the king of Babylon. His law code is an important historic source because it helped to pioneer the idea of justice and rule by law. However, his law code was based upon a system of inequality in which punishments were based upon social status.

40. Religion Polytheism: Belief in many gods Monotheism: Belief in one god
Most common
Vedic Religion becomes basis of Hinduism
Monotheism: Belief in one god
Hebrews
Zoroastrianism (Persian Empire)

41. Trade Local, regional, and transregional trade
Exchange of goods, cultural ideas, and technology
Examples:
Egypt and Nubia
Mesopotamia and Indus River Valley
Economies during this period relied upon a barter system in which goods were exchanged for other goods.